THE
USE OF INSECTS AS FOOD IN MEXICO
Taxa and life stages consumed
Buprestidae
(metallic woodborers)
Chalcophora sp., larva
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Aplagiognathus
spinosus Newman, larva, pupa
Aplagiognathus sp., larva
Arophalus afin rusticus
Linn., larva, pupa
Callipogon barbatus Fabr., larva,
pupa, adult
Lagocheirus rogersi Bates, larva,
pupa, adult
Stenodontes cer. maxillosus
Drury, larva, pupa
Trichoderes pini Chevr., larva, pupa
Chrysomelidae (leaf
beetles)
Leptinotarsa
decemlineata Say, larva
Cicindelidae (tiger
beetles)
Cicindela curvata Chevr., larva
Cicindela
roseiventris Chevr., larva
Curculionidae
(snout beetles, weevils)
Metamasius spinolae Vaurie, larva,
pupa
Rhynchophorus
palmarum Linn., larva, pupa
Scyphophorus
acupunctatus Gyllenhal, larva, pupa
Dytiscidae
(predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister explanatus
Leconte,
larva, pupa, adult
Histeridae (hister
beetles)
Homolepta sp., larva
Hydrophilidae
(water scavenger beetles)
Tropisternus tinctis Sharpe, larva,
pupa, adult
Passalidae (bess
beetles)
Oleus reinator Trequi, larva,
pupa
Passalus af. punctiger
Lep. & Serv., larva, pupa
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Melolontha sp., larva
Phyllophaga rubella
(author?),
larva
Phyllophaga spp., larvae, pupae
Strategus sp., larva
Xyloryctes spp., larvae, pupae
Tenebrionidae
(darkling beetles)
Tenebrio molitor Linn., larva, pupa
Paxillus leachi M. & Y.,larva
Rhantus sp., adult
Ephydridae (shore
flies)
Hydropyrus (=
Ephydra) hians Say, larva, pupa, adult
Mossilus (=
Gymnopa) tibialis Cresson, larva
Muscidae (filth
flies)
Musca domestica Linn., larva, pupa
Stratiomyidae
(soldier flies)
Stratiomyid spp.,
larvae
Syrphidae (flower
flies)
Belostomatidae
(giant water bugs)
Abedus ovatus Stal., nymph,
adult
Abedus sp., nymph, adult
Belostoma sp., nymph, adult
Lethocerus sp., nymph, adult
Coreidae
(leaf-footed bugs)
Acanthocephala
luctuosa S., nymph, adult
Pachilis gigas B., nymph, adult
Corixidae (water
boatmen)
Corisella edulis J., nymph, adult
Corisella (=
Corixa) mercenaria Say, egg, nymph, adult
Corisella texcocana
Jacz.,
egg, nymph, adult
Krizousacorixa (=
Kirzousacorixa; = Ahauhtlea) azteca, egg, nymph, adult
Krizousacorixa
femorata Guerin-Meneville, egg, nymph, adult
Notonectidae
(backswimmers)
Notonecta
unifasciata Guerin-Meneville, egg, nymph, adult
Naucoridae
(creeping water bugs)
Naucorid sp./spp.,
nymphs, adults
Pentatomidae (stink
bugs)
Edessa conspersa Stal., nymph,
adult
Edessa mexicana Stal., nymph,
adult
Edessa petersii Stal., nymph,
adult
Euchistus crenator Stal., nymph, adult
Euchistus
strennus Distant (= zopilotensis
Distant), nymph, adult
Euchistus (=
Atizies) sufultus Smith,
nymph, adult
Euchistus (=
Atizies) taxcoensis Ancona,
nymph, adult
Pharylpia
fasciata (author?),
nymph, adult
Brachymona
arcane tenebrosa M.,
nymph, adult
Aphididae
(aphids)
Aphid honeydew
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Proarna sp., adult
Tibicen
puinosa S., adult
Membracidae
(treehoppers)
Hoplophorion
(= Metcalfiella) monograma
Germar, nymph, adult
Umbonia
reclinata Germar, nymph,
adult
Umbonia sp., nymph, adult
Apidae (honey
bees, bumble bees)
Apis mellifera Linn., egg, larva, pupa
Bombus
diligens (author?),
adult
Bombus
formosus (author?),
adult
Bombus medius (author?), adult
Lestrimelita
limao Sm., egg, larva,
pupa
Melipona
beeckei Bennet, egg,
larva, pupa
Partamona sp., egg, larva, pupa
Scaptotrigona
mexicana G., egg, larva,
pupa
Trigona jaty Fabr., egg, larva, pupa
Trigona nigra
nigra Cress, egg, larva,
pupa
Trigona sp., egg, larva, pupa
Diprionidae
(conifer sawflies)
Neodiprion
guilletei (author?),
prepupa
Formicidae
(ants)
Atta
cephalotes Latr., adult
reproductive
Atta mexicana Bourmeir, adult
Liometopum
apiculatum Mayr., egg,
larva, pupa
Liometopum
occidentale var. luctuosum
W., egg, larva, pupa
Myrmecosystus
(= Formica) melliger Llava
(= melligera), adult
Myrmecosystus
mexicanus W., adult
Pogonomyrmex sp., larva, pupa
Sphecidae
(sphecids or mud daubers)
Ammophila sp., immature stages
Vespidae
(wasps, hornets)
Amnophila sp., immature stages
Brachygastra
azteca (Sauss.),
immatures
Brachygastra
(= Nectarinia) lecheguana
(Latr.), immatures
Brachygastra
mellifica (Say),
immatures
Mischocyttarus sp., immatures
Parachartegus
apicalis (Fabr.),
immatures
Polistes
canadensis (Linn.),
immatures
Xylocopidae
(carpenter bees)
Xylocopa sp., larval food
Scientific
name(s) unreported
Cossidae
(carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Comadia (=
Xyleutes; = Cossus) redtenbachi
Hamm., larva
Geometridae
(measuringworms)
Synopsia
mexicanaria Walk., larva
Hepialidae
(ghost moths, swifts)
Phassus
trajesa Linn., larva
Phassus
triangularis E., larva
Megathymidae
(giant skippers)
Aegiale (=
Acentrocneme) hesperiaris
Kirby, larva
Noctuidae
(noctuids)
Ascalapha (=
Erebus) odorata Linn.,
larva
Heliothis zea Boddie, larva
Spodoptera
frugiperda J.E. Smith,
larva
Pieridae
(whites, sulphurs)
Catasticta
teutila Doubleday, larva
Eucheira
socialis Westwood,
larva, pupa
Psychidae
(bagworm moths)
Bagworm tea
Pyralidae
(snout moths, grass moths)
Laniifera
cyclades Druce, larva
Saturniidae
(giant silk moths)
Arsenura
armida Cramer, larva
Hylesia
frigida Hubner, larva
Hylesia sp., larva
Latebraria
amphipyroides Guenee,
larva
Sphingidae
(hawk-moths, sphinx moths)
Hyles lineata (author?), larva
Scientific name(s) unreported
Corydalidae
(dobsonflies, fishflies)
Scientific name(s) unreported
Aeschnidae (darners)
Anax sp., nymph, adult
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Arphia fallax Sauss., nymph, adult
Boopedon
flaviventris Bruner,
nymph, adult
Boopedon sp. af. flaviventris Bruner,
nymph, adult
Encoptlophus
herbaceous Sauss.,
nymph, adult
Melanoplus
femurrubrum DeGeer,
nymph, adult
Melanoplus
mexicanus Sauss., nymph,
adult
Melanoplus sp., nymph, adult
Ochrotettix cer. salinus Burm., nymph, adult
Osmilia
flavolineata DeGeer,
nymph, adult
Plectrotettra
nobilis Walk., nymph,
adult
Schistocerca paranensis Burm., nymph, adult
Schistocerca sp., nymph, adult
Spharagemon
aequale Say, nymph,
adult
Sphenarium
histrio Gerst., nymph,
adult
Sphenarium
magnum Marquez, nymph,
adult
Sphenarium
purpurascens Charp.,
nymph, adult
Sphenarium spp., nymphs, adults
Trimerotropis sp., nymph, adult
Tropinotus
mexicanus Brunner,
nymph, adult
Blattidae
(cockroaches)
Medicinal use
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Scientific
name(s) unreported
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Scientific
name(s) unreported
Romaleidae
(lubber grasshoppers)
Romalea
colorata S., nymph,
adult
Romalea sp., nymph, adult
Taeniopoda sp., nymph, adult
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Microcentrum sp., nymph, adult
Hydropsychidae
(net-spinning caddiceflies)
Leptonema sp., larva
In her book on insects
as a future source of protein (1982a), Dr. Julieta Ramos-Elorduy
de Conconi states that, "Mexico can be described as a
country where there is so much hunger that the country doesn't feel
it." In some areas of the State of
Oaxaco and in some arid regions of the country, insects are the only
significant source of protein. The author presents in tabular form a list of 71
species of insects that are consumed in Mexico, listing them by order and
family and giving the developmental stage(s) that are eaten and the
geographical location [state(s)] where eaten.
Analyses of samples
from Mexico have revealed a crude protein content (dry weight) between 31% and
72% in most species. Most amino acids (including lysine) surpass FAO standards,
but in keeping with generally-obtained results from elsewhere, most
insects are low in methionine and tryptophan. The author notes the need for
more data on bioavailability, particularly when insects are used in conjunction
with other common foods in the rural diet.
Conconi proposes that
the "industrialization" of insects (the establishment of small
industries in the countryside for the mass-culture of insects as food)
would work both to the benefit of rural economies and better nutrition in the
country as a whole. Relative to their exploitable attributes, it is pointed out
that insects are the dominant animal group on earth, they are adapted to a wide
variety of ecological conditions, and many have high reproductive capacity and
short life cycles. Relative to their acceptability as food, a survey taken in
the Federal District (Mexico City) revealed that 75% of the population is aware
that there are edible insects in Mexico, 93% considered
"industrialization" a viable project, 39% responded that they would use
the resulting products, 29% that they would use them once in awhile, and 19%
that they would try them only as a curiosity.
Conconi demonstrates
that edible insects are prominant in the rural markets, but in addition several
species command high prices in Mexico City and other urban areas where they are
purchased by people of various economic levels and are sold as delicacies in
the finest restaurants. The author mentions that in 1981, the demand for
"escamoles" (immature stages of the ant, Liometopum apiculatum)
was so great that the price per kilogram went up to 1,000 pesos (more than U.S.
$2 at the then-prevailing exchange rate). "In Tlaxcoapan . . . . they are sold in restaurants like El
Prendes, Las Meninas, Delmonicos, and Bellinghaussen, where 2 tacos with 50
grams of ants costs 300 pesos. They are served fried or with black butter, but
the best way is fried with onions and garlic."
The recorded history
of edible insect use in Mexico goes back hundreds of years. The work of the
great Spanish writer, Sahagun (1557; vide Curran 1937, 1951),
reveals that the Aztecs knew a great deal about natural history, including the
insects that are edible. As extracted from Curran's summary, the Indians ate
honey from bees' and wasps' nests whenever they could find them, and the larvae
and pupae were frequently eaten along with the honey. The Indians greatly
relished the honey of the "honey ant," termed mequazcatl, and
consumed the ant along with the honey. The corn ear worm was eaten with relish,
along with the corn. All grasshoppers were considered edible and formed an
important part of the diet during seasons when they were abundant. Curran
reproduced a number of early native drawings taken from Sahagun's work,
including the maguey caterpillar and several others that the Aztecs relished as
food. Sahagun (1557 [1946]; vide Massieu et al 1958) also mentioned that the
Indians ate the aquatic insects (Hemiptera) known as axayacatl after
drying them in sunlight.
In their English
translation of Clavigero's (1786) "History of Lower
California," Lake and Gray (1937) note that it describes
experiences in the 1750's and they cite two references showing, first, the
diversity of animal foods used by the Indians of northwestern Mexico and,
secondly, the consequences of giving up insects as part of the diet. From
Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1864 (Lake and Gray, p. 93
footnote): "There seem to have
been few animals which the Indian did not eat. Father Baegert states that they
lived chiefly on dogs and cats, horses and mules, mice and rats, lizards and
snakes, grasshoppers and crickets, owls and bats, green caterpillars, 'an
abominable white worm of length and thickness of the thumb,' and other insects
and small animals." A second footnote
(p. 93) states:
Under the instruction of the
missionary the Indian was induced to give up the eating of many kinds of
insects and worms, and to eat beef. From an economic point of view this was a
mistake of the missionaries. The Mission Indians required an enormous amount of
beef. It was not uncommon to have an Indian consume in a day from fifteen to
twenty pounds of beef. Cattle stealing became a favorite pastime of the
Indians, and at first it was difficult to increase the number of cattle at a
Mission. Father Baegert wrote that 'for eight years I kept, ranging at large,
from four to five hundred head of cattle, and sometimes as many goats and
sheep, until the constant robberies of my own and the neighboring missions
compelled me to give up cattle breeding. . . . The Indian never learned to eat
pork nor to drink milk, and so he always demanded a generous supply of beef. .
. (University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology,
Vol. VIII, Part I, p. 13).
In a paper useful for
comparative nutrient values, although no insects are included, Cravioto et
al (1945) analyzed the major fruit and vegetable foods of Mexico for
carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid, calcium, phosphorus,
iron, nitrogen, ash and total solids content. Massieu et al (1950)
analyzed the tyrosine in several foods of high protein content: commercial
samples of "zeina" and wheat gluten; "axayacatl" (nymphs
and adults of the aquatic hemipteran genera Krizousacorixa, Notonecta and
Corisella); "ahuahutle" (eggs of Krizousacorixa and Corisella);
"maguey worms" or "meocuiles" (Acentrocneme [Aegiale =]
hesperiaris); "jumiles" (hemipterans of the genera Atizies,
Edessa and Euchistus [Euschistus =]); "acociles" (small
crustaceans, Cambarus moctezumi); and "charales" (small
freshwater fish, Chirostoma jordani). The crustacean and the fish are
used as food in many regions of Mexico, while the use of the insects is limited
to certain groups of the Mexican population. A very high tyrosine content was
found in the "ahuahutle," nearly twice the amount found in
"zeina" and more than twice the amount in the other materials tested.
Cravioto et al (1951) analyzed several
hundred Mexican foods for their nutritional value. Results obtained from
insects (ahuautle, axayacatl, gusanos de maguey, and jumiles) are shown in
Mexico Table 1 (see Cravioto et al p. 153). Also extracted from the lengthy
table of Cravioto et al and included in Table 1 are data on
"acocile," a crustacean, and "charales," a small fish
(these data are discussed below under Massieu et al (1958)).
Barrera and Bassols (1953)
mention (vide Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989) that lepidopteran larvae,
ahuahutle (Corixidae), and honey ants (Formicidae) were used as food by the
Aztecs. Larvae of large cerambycid beetles (Cerambycidae) were eaten in the
Ferreria Region of the State of Hidalgo, and caterpillars which grow in cactus
(Pyralidae: Laniifera cyclades Druce according to Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino) were eaten in Yucatan.
Grimaldo et al (1957),
pointing
out the lack of information on cystine and tyrosine in previous amino acid
studies on Mexican foods, reported the results of their analyses for these two
amino acids. Included are data on ahuahutle, axayacatl, chapulines
(grasshoppers), and jumiles (Mexico Table 2; see Grimaldo et al Table II, p.
6). The authors discuss their results in relation to whole milk protein,
considered an appropriate standard for promoting growth and nitrogen retention.
For comparisons, tyrosine values in the proteins of ahuahutle and axayacatl are
borrowed from the previous study by Massieu et al (1950). Ahuahutle, with
cystine at 4.64% of total protein, was the highest in this amino acid of the 58
foods that were analyzed, 34 of vegetable origin and 24 of animal origin.
"Requeson," a product obtained from milk, was, at 4.48%, the only
other sampled food that was close. The other insects were much lower than whole
egg protein in cystine. Ahuahutle, at 11.10%, was much higher in tyrosine (as a
percentage of total protein) than were any of the other sampled foods. The
other insects were also higher than egg protein (Table 2) and higher than most
other foods in tyrosine.
Massieu et al (1958) conducted amino
acid analyses on six primitive Mexican foods, four insects, a crustacean, and a
small fish (Mexico Table 3; see Massieu et al Table 2, p. 213). Of ahuahutle,
known also as "aguaucle" or "Mexican caviar," they state
that several dishes which are typically Mexican are prepared with it today:
"Usually it is eaten after it is mixed with eggs and fried; it is sometimes
mixed into other popular foodstuffs. It tastes much like shrimp." Jumiles "are eaten raw, fried, or
roasted and ground, by several groups of the rural population, especially in
tropical and subtropical regions."
Gusanos de maguey or "meocuiles" today are eaten after they have
been fried in lard or in their own fat and rolled in 'tortillas.' They are consumed by a number of people,
especially those living on the high plateaus in Mexico where the Agave plant
(maguey) is cultivated for the 'pulque' industry. The flavor of meocuiles is
very much valued and in Mexico City they are considered delicacies." Other foods discussed are
"Acociles," small Crustacea belonging to the genus Cambarus,
specifically C. moctezumi which live in Lake Xochimilco near Mexico
City, and "charales," small fish (in this case Chirostoma jordani)
which are common in the fresh water lakes near Mexico City and elsewhere. These
crustaceans and fish, especially the latter, "are quite popular among
groups in Mexico which have been considered to consume inadequate amounts of
amino acids in the diet."
The amino acid
analyses of Massieu et al revealed that none of the insects are as high as the
fish or crustacean in lysine, but axayacatl and jumiles contained a high level
of tryptophan and ahuahutle was the richest in arginine and tyrosine (Mexico
Table 3). Massieu et al also compare the nutrient composition of the six foods
using the data of Cravioto et al (1951) (see Mexico Table 1).
Ahuahutle, axayacatl,
jumiles, and the fish were high in protein based on the conversion factor of N
x 6.25. The jumiles and gusanos de maguey were rich in fat (ether extract),
although the fat of the former included fats used to prepare them for market.
Axayacatl was high in calcium although not nearly as high as the fish and crustaceans.
Ahuahutle and axayacatl were among the samples high in phosphorus but the
calcium-phosphorus ratio was very low in ahuahutle. Axayacatl was
especially rich in iron, while the gusanos de maguey were relatively low
compared to the other foods. All of the
foods were rich in niacin, especially ahuahutle and axayacatl, and these plus
jumiles and the crustacean were high in riboflavin. Massieu et al conclude:
"These primitive foods can contribute much toward the nutrition of those
who consume them."
Massieu et al (1959)
describe the systematic program of studies conducted by the National Institute
of Nutrition over the past 15 years on the composition of Mexican foods. The
studies have included foods used frequently in the diets of precolombian
Mexicans, and the authors suggest that some of these products "are
potentially important, especially those of animal origin, because they could
complement the drastic protein deficiency often observed in some sectors of the
Mexican population." Studies are
needed, the authors say, to determine ways in which the use of some of these
foods, which include insects, could be made more widespread and available in
Mexican diets.
Samples of the 190
foods included in the present study were obtained in local markets. Among the
insects studied (Mexico Table 4), the authors noted the high protein and niacin
content of "chapulin" (Sphenarium grasshoppers), and the
protein, riboflavin and niacin of jumiles. "Tismitches" (Table 4; see
Massieu et al, 1959, Table VIII, p. 64) apparently is a mixture of insect
larvae, crustaceans and fish collected in areas like Tlacotalpan; the
composition was not uniform, possibly because of seasonal changes in the
proportions of the organisms collected. The dried product had a high vitamin
content.
MacNeish (1958) is
cited by Callen (1963) as finding grasshopper wings and legs in
two of 11 coprolites from Mexico. Callen examined coprolites supplied by
MacNeish from two caves of the Sierra Madre in southwestern Tamaulipas, Mexico,
and found parts of grasshoppers, beetles, bees, ants, wasps and termites. The
material examined covered eight cultural phases spanning 7000 to 400 BC, but
the author does not specify which phase(s) contained insects.
Conconi (1974)
points out that insects are the dominant animal group and have great
reproductive potential, therefore, they are a natural resource that offers new
food alternatives (vide Conconi and Burgess 1977). In the 1970's, Conconi and colleagues at the National Autonomous
University in Mexico City initiated an extensive research program on the
nutritional value of Mexican insects.
Conconi and Bourges
(1977) cited several recent studies noting the poor nutrition that occurs in
the arid and semiarid zones that make up a large part of Mexico, and stated that
this makes it obligatory to search for new food alternatives that enrich the
basic diet and fit within traditional Mexican food habits. They list 52 species
of insects known to be consumed in Mexico, many of which have not been
previously recorded as food. Species are listed according to insect order and
family, and information is given for each species on the life stage(s) consumed
and the geographic area (state) where consumed. The authors also present a
world list of insects recorded as food (369 species), most of which, however,
are, as stated by the authors, drawn from Bodenheimer (1951).
The six species
studied were all high in crude protein (dry weight basis), ranging from 58.3%
to 71.0% (Mexico Table 5; see authors' Table 1). Except for methionine and
tryptophan, and in the case of Atizies taxcoensis, lysine, amino acids
exceeded F.A.O. (1957) recommended daily allowances (mg/16 mg/N). Thus, these
insects are, in general, of intermediate protein quality. Studies are needed to
determine their value as blended with other foods which are common in the rural
Mexican diet. Conconi and Bourges emphasize that, except for the grasshopper, Sphenarium
histrio, none of the species included in their study compete with man for
food. Furthermore, four of the species, Atizies taxcoensis (jumiles), Cossus
(Xyleutes =) redtenbachi (pink caterpillar), Corisella mercenaria (axayacatl),
and juvenile stages of the ant, Liometopum apiculatum (escamoles), are
endemic in arid zones, thus enhancing their importance as a food source.
In addition to the
data in Table 5, Conconi and Bourges conducted a proximate analysis on C.
mercenaria, one of the "axayacatl" group, with the following
results (dry weight basis): protein 68.74%, fat 11.13%, ash 5.53%, and
carbohydrate 12.60%.
Conconi and Pino
(1979) conducted a study in eight counties of the high, semiarid Mezquital
Valley (State of Hidalgo) which has long been considered one of the areas of
poorest nutrition in Mexico. The soil is poor in organic matter and minerals
and the alkalinity high enough to inhibit cultivation. Average calorie
consumption in Hidalgo State is only 2,064 per day per person, and there is
high infant mortality because of malnutrition. Malnutrition in the Mezquital
Valley is even more severe with an average calorie consumption of less than
1,774 per day per person. The diet is based on corn, beans, chilies, quelite
and a ration of pulque (liquor from the maguey), and consumption of products of
animal origin (such as meat, eggs and milk) "is very rare." Insects of one kind or another are commonly
eaten daily, however, and the authors obtained proximate analyses on 13 species
and on five plants which serve as hosts for seven of them (Mexico Table 6; see
authors' Tables II, III and IV).
It is readily seen by
the data that the insects are many times higher in protein and fat than are the
plants upon which they feed (Table 6). Protein ranges as high as 69.05% in the
adult weevil, Metamasius spinolae, compared to 5.21% in nopal, the
cactus upon which it feeds. Fat ranges as high as 58.55% in the larva of Aegiale
hesperiaris compared to 3.60% in the maguey plant. The insects are all much
lower in crude fiber. Conconi and Pino make the interesting suggestion that
some plants that are widespread and characteristic of arid regions, but of
limited food value, such as mezquite, madrono, and some cacti, could be used
for cultivation of their associated insects, thus producing more protein of
animal quality.
In this first of a
series of published abstracts by J.R.E. de Conconi and colleagues, Conconi
and Pino (1980a) report that they have conducted proximate analyses
on several species of edible insects: larvae of Phyllophaga rubella (Coleoptera);
larvae, pupae and adults of Ephydra [Hydropyrus =] hians (Diptera);
larvae of Erebus [Ascalapha =] odoratus [odorata =] (Lepidoptera),
preserved in salt; and Abedus ovatus and Leptocerus sp.
(Hemiptera). These insects ranged from 35% to 85% crude protein on a dry weight
basis. Administration of the juvenile hormone analogue, Altocid ZR 515, to Locusta
migratoria by sprinkling on the insects or on their food produced no
significant difference in their nutritive value. Conconi and Pino (1980b)
report preliminarily on the digestibility of insect proteins (see Conconi et al
1981a for the full report). Conconi et al (1981c) provide
preliminary data on the protein quality of three edible species, Pachilis
gigas, Euschistus strennus, and Ephydra [Hydropyrus =] hians (see
Conconi et al 1982a for the full report).
Conconi et al (1981a) determined the
protein digestibility of nine insect foods (Mexico Table 7; see authors' Table
4). The data show, by column, respectively, protein as a percentage of dry
matter, digestible protein as a percentage of dry matter, and the percentage of
the protein that is digestible, using methods and criteria described by the
authors. As shown, the percentage of the protein that is digestible ranged from
77.86% to 98.93% in the different species or species groupings. The authors
discuss these results in relation to the daily intake of proteins that are
considered adequate by various experts on nutrition, noting that Mexican
nutritionists consider 25 grams per day per person to be, at best, minimal
(this level of intake is well below FAO and U.S. standards).
Conconi et al (1982a) present data on 11
species, including new data on amino acid content of six species (Mexico Table
8; see authors' Table 4). The most notable feature of this report is the high
methionine/cysteine values found, for all six species exceeding FAO-OMS
standards. The authors report protein chemical values, based on the 1973 FAO
guidelines, for 10 species as follows (authors' Table 5): Sphenarium histrio
60%; S. purpurascens 65%; Atizies taxcoensis 10%; Pachilis
gigas 58%; Euschistus strennus 56%; Cossus [Xyleutes =]
redtenbachi 60%; Hydropyrus hians 42%; Musca domestica 58%; Atta
mexicana 60%; Liometopum apiculatum immature reproductives 80%,
immature workers 51%.
Conconi et al (1983b)
report amino acid analyses on several species not previously analyzed, i.e.,
the grasshoppers Boopedon flaviventris and Melanoplus mexicanus;
the homopteran Hoplophora monograma; the bee Trigona sp.; the
caterpillar Hylesia frigida, from the madrono tree; and the grub of the
weevil, Scyphophorus acupunctatus from the maguey. The authors do not
give the tabularized data in this abstract, but state that all of the insects
analyzed meet FAO (1973) quidelines for all of the essential amino acids except
tryptophan. The chemical value of H. monograma was 96%, which is excellent
and the highest value found in any insect yet studied. The chemical value for
the weevil, S. acupunctatus, was also high, 81%. Conconi et al (1983c)
conducted analyses of sodium, potassium and lithium in 28 species from
different localities in Mexico. None of the samples contained lithium, and no
relationship was observed between classification (order to which the insect
belongs) and the quantity of sodium or potassium found.
Conconi (1982b)
presents in condensed form various points made in her book (Conconi
1982a). Conconi et al (1983d)
discuss the past use of insects as food by different ethnic groups in
Mexico. According to the authors, 38
species were included, but, in this abstract only 21 are mentioned and specific
ethnic groups are not identified. Robles
et al (1983) report that 28 edible species were found to be used in
a region in the southeastern part of the Federal District. Lepidoptera
predominated. Most of the insects were collected and consumed locally, with
only a few such as the escamole ants, ahuautle and axayacatl entering
commerce. Eerde (1980/1981)
provides a popular account of insects as food, based on the work of Conconi and
colleagues.
Conconi (1984) re-emphasizes
many of the points made in her earlier works (1982a,b), pointing out that the
Mexican diet is based on corn, beans and chili, and that 24 of the 32 states
are regarded as having inadequate nutrition (too few calories and too little
protein). In the States of Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Puebla, insects supply
a large part of the animal protein consumed by the inhabitants, and some
species such as grasshoppers, caterpillars, stink bugs, wasps and ants are
"commercialized" by the local people. Generally, the insects are
eaten roasted or fried, "or they are boiled and then fried with onions and
chilies and eaten in tacos."
Flavor varies from insect to insect: "For example, the white maguey
worm tastes like crackles, grasshoppers generally assume the taste of the condiment
with which they are cooked, such as chili piquin or lemon in garlic;
'escamoles' taste like nuts fried in butter, 'cuecla' larvae preserved in salt
taste like herring, etc." Insect
dishes found in restaurants in Mexico, the United States and France include
such as "escamoles in black butter," "chapulines in
garlic," and "chinicuiles in curry." The author concludes that:
We don't know how much it would cost
to cultivate insects as food; however, we believe that because of their high
protein content, high digestibility, variety in food diets, high conversion
efficiency, and great reproductive potential associated with a short life
cycle, the useful biomass obtained would be significant when compared to other
products which are used to obtain protein. That is why insects should be taken
into consideration as a food alternative for a world in which human nutrition
has been a huge problem.
Conconi et al (1984a) listed 101 species
of insects that had been found up to that time to be used as food in Mexico
(the number of species known to be used has since then increased to more than
200 [Conconi, pers. comm. 1986]). The authors summarize data (largely
incorporated in a later paper [see Table 9]) on crude protein content of 68
species, protein ranging as high as 81.7%
on a dry weight basis. "Chemical
values" are reported for 10 additional species as follows: in the
Hymenoptera, Brachygastra azteca 70%, B. mellifica 70%, Parachartegus
apicalis 50%, Polybia parvulina 70%, Trigona sp. 58%, and Vespula
squamosa 70%; in the Lepidoptera, Hylesia frigida 45%; in the
Orthoptera, Boopedon flaviventris 56%, Melanoplus mexicanus 56%,
and Sphenarium spp. 56%. These chemical scores are based on amino acid
profiles in comparison to FAO/OMS (1973) guidelines, but insofar as this
reviewer is aware, the authors have never described precisely how they
calculate their chemical scores. Finally, the authors list 86 vernacular names
for the edible stages of various species; these are listed under the
appropriate groups in this chapter.
Insects may be added
to Mexico's tortillas according to a United Press International article,
datelined Mexico City (San Francisco Chronicle, February 17, 1988) by Eda
Chavez. Nutrition specialists are
investigating enriching basic foodstuffs with high-protein substances from
insects such as crickets, flies, "worms" or termites. Pedro Valle, dietary researcher at the
National Autonomous University of Mexico, is quoted: "The tortilla is one
of the basic dietary elements among Mexican families because of its low cost,
but it also has a low protein content."
He added that the incidence of malnutrition could be effectively lowered
by adding animal protein. Dr. Julieta
Ramos-Elorduy, an entomologist at the university, noted that 40% of Mexicans
suffer from malnutrition. "And
this will continue as the buying power of the average Mexican decreases
daily." Many peasants, especially
among Indian communities, exist on tortillas, black beans and hot chile
peppers. They almost never eat meat or
vegetables. "Insects ensure a
reliable alternative protein source and would reduce the possibility of Mexico
being a hungry nation in the future, " Elorduy said. Javier Cordoba, researcher at the Institute
of Agronomic Research, noting that dietary customs may make whole insects
repulsive, says, "But just by using insect flour, we can convert any type
of snack into a product with high protein value." Dr. Hector Burges, at
the Institute of Nutrition, mentioned a wide range of insect flavors resembling
almonds, pine nuts, apples, a hot highly seasoned flavor, and fried pork rinds.
Carolyn Dunlap (pers. comm. 1987)
reported that during two years as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Mexico (1984 to
1986), she saw grasshoppers and "gusanos" sold in the markets. They
were also on the menu as delicacies in Mexico City and surrounding areas, and
in Veracruz, Acapulco and Oaxaca.
From their own
extensive field work and from historical documents, Ramos-Elorduy and
Pino (1989) describe how insects contributed to the diet of Mexicans in the
past, before the Spanish Conquest. Of the 247 species known by the authors to
be consumed in Mexico, 70 species are treated in this book. Some of Sahagun's
accounts from the early 16th Century are quoted and some of his drawings are
duplicated in order to establish the antiquity of use of many species. Some
insects such as escamole ants and ahuahutle (eggs of aquatic Hemiptera), were
held in such high esteem that they were used to pay taxes to the Emperor
Montezuma.
The book is divided
into Prolog, Preface, Introduction, Chapters 1-4, Appendices and
Bibliography. In Chapter 1 (pp. 9-45), the early use of the various
species is documented. Species discussed include 1 from the Order Odonata
(dragonflies), 7 species from Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers), 1 from Anoplura
(lice), 13 from Hemiptera (true bugs), 17 from Coleoptera (beetles), 9 from
Lepidoptera (caterpillars), 2 from Diptera (true flies), and 20 from
Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps). Many common or vernacular names are
identified, for example a total of 11 for the leafcutter ants, Atta cephalotes
and A. mexicana.
In Chapter 2 (pp. 47-56),
nutritional value of insects is discussed. Most, if not all of the data (5
tables) are drawn from previously published work by these authors and their
colleagues. It should be noted that work published prior to the late 1980s by
the senior author was under her then-married name, de Conconi. The
insects highest in protein content are the grasshoppers, with the five species
analyzed ranging from 70.9% to 77.6% on a dry weight basis, and the wasps, six
of seven species analyzed ranging from 61.4% to 72.0%. Protein digestibility in
nine species examined ranged from 77.9% to 98.9%. From amino acid data on 18
species, the insects generally surpassed 1973 FAO values except most were low
in tryptophan. Insects comprising the ahuahutle and axayacatl (aquatic
Hemiptera) were low in methionine/cysteine, but rich in tryptophan.
In Chapter 3 (pp.57-65),
the authors present a figure (representative for south-central Mexico)
showing the seasonal distribution of edible insect consumption by month for 63
species. Elevational (climate) and and vegetational differences variously
modify these distribution patterns in other parts of the country. Of the
species discussed, 58.6% are most abundant during the summer and fall (rainy
season), while 29.2% are more abundant in spring (dry season). About 12% are
found also during the winter (dry).
In Chapter 4 (pp. 67-75),
the authors present a map showing the distribution of 23 ethnic groups in
central and southern Mexico and discuss consumption of edible insects by the
different groups. Which insects are consumed by which ethnic groups appears to
be determined largely by which insects are abundant in a given ethnic
territory. Some widely distributed insects are consumed by all ethnic groups.
The early manuscripts consulted by the authors give little clue to differences
in insect foods of different groups. The authors suggest that, although
"mestizos" (Pima-Nahua ethnic group) are found all over Mexico
and have probably had the highest consumption of edible insects, it may be less
common now because of acculturation than in groups which have had less exposure
to "roads, radio, television and tourism, and the distribution of
processed foods by the multinational companies." These poorer groups have tended to "preserve their culture
and vivid memories of their ancestors' lifestyle." The authors suggest that because of the
large territory they occupy in south and central Mexico, the Zapotecos, Mixtecos,
Otomies and Nahuas are the ethnic groups with the highest consumption of edible
insects.
Much information on
collecting, preparation and marketing of the edible species is provided in the
Appendix (pp. 79-93), which consists of 40 black and white photographs
and accompanying legends. As the authors point out (p.75), insects should not
be considered "unconventional food"; they have been eaten extensively
in the past, and they continue to be consumed today. They conclude by saying
that insects "could become the 'good Samaritans' in our fight for survival." Additional information provided in the book
is included under the appropriate insect groups in this chapter.
Ramos-Elorduy (1990)
reports that her research group, to date, has recorded 247 species of insects
used as food in Mexico. She notes that some two-thirds of the country lies in
arid zones, and notes the heavy pressure placed by the demographic explosion on
land use and the resource base. She
discusses nutritional value of the insects, the fact that many are storable
when collected in quantity, their economic role, and asks, "if so many
people eat insects and in large numbers and wide variety, why do they often
continue to suffer from hunger and malnutrition." The answer is complex, involving economic,
social, geographic and other factors, but basically, "we can say that it
is because edible insects are not consumed in sufficiently large quantities,
probably due, in turn, to the fact that these species are gathered in the
wild." Ramos-Elorduy concludes
her revealing analysis, saying:
Insects have long been a significant
dietary factor in the poorer regions of the world, and it is high time that
scientists recognize this fact and begin to build on it, rather than
discouraging or ignoring the practice.
The merits of insects as human foods should be addressed by nutrition
scientists, with entomologists supplying basic data on the insects' identities
and on their mass production.
Ramos-Elorduy and Pino
(1990)
used data from proximate analyses (Mexico Table 9; see authors' Table I) to
calculate the energy values (authors' Table II) of 94 of the insect species
used as food in Mexico. Caloric values ranged (dry weight basis) from 2827
kcal/kg (1000 g) to 7769 kcal/kg. Caloric values were generally higher for
immature stages (eggs, larvae, pupae) than for adult insects. Excluding pork,
which is very high in fat, soybeans at 4660 kcal/kg was the highest ranking non-insect
Mexican food, plant or animal. Maize (corn) had a caloric value of 3700
kcal/kg. Of the 94 insect species analyzed, 50% had a higher caloric value than
soybeans, 87% were higher than corn; 63% were higher than beef, 70% were higher
than fish, lentiles and beans, and 95% were higher than wheat, rye or
teosintle.
The five highest
Lepidoptera (caterpillars) (of 16 species examined) averaged 6594 kcal/kg; the
five highest Coleoptera (beetle grubs) (of 17 species examined) averaged 5964
kcal/kg; the five highest Hemiptera (mixed nymphs and adults) (of 14 species
examined) averaged 5646 kcal/kg; the five highest Hymenoptera (of 24 species
examined) all were ants (samples varied from adults to mixtures of immatures)
and averaged 5361 kcal/kg; while the five highest Orthoptera (grasshopper
nymphs and adults) (of 20 species examined) averaged 4168 kcal/kg. Thus,
Mexican insects constitute a rich source of energy.
The economic role of
edible insects, especially their importance for impoverished farmers, was
portrayed in an article (datelined Actopan, Mexico) by Mark Smith in the
Houston Chronicle (July 4, 1991); the title was "Mexican gourmets
pay big for rich taste of ant eggs. Odd delicacy provides both food and
income."
For campesinos, or poor farm
workers, like Aviles Hidalgo, 29, who live in the state of Hidalgo some 120
miles north of Mexico [City], escamoles (ehs-cah-MOH-lehs) are a source
of pocket money. In a country where the unemployment rate may range higher than
30 percent, money is scarce. Aviles
Hidalgo, like many of his neighbors, lives in a one-room, 35-foot-by-15 foot,
dirt-floor, cinder block house at the rocky base of the Cero Alto and Puerta de
la Cruz mountains. They eke out a
meager living. But despite rocky land,
little income and a few goats, chickens and cattle, Aviles Hidalgo said he has
been blessed with a rich supply of agave desert plants, known in Mexico as the maguey
(mah-GAY).
'If I moved to Mexico (City) and
lost my job, I wouldn't be able to eat,' Aviles Hidalgo said, sitting next to
his wife while baby chicks roamed below, picking at scraps on the home's dirt
floor. 'At least on my farm, I'll
always be able to eat. Also, where else
would I be able to find such a delicacy like escamole,' he added with a
smile. Aviles Hidalgo said the thick,
leathery, gray-green maguey has a diverse array of uses. Juices from the heart of the maguey
are distilled into pulque (POOL-keh), an alcoholic drink related to
mescal and tequila. Along the maguey's
roots are often colonies of ants, serving as a source of escamoles. From February through spring, Aviles
Hidalgo, like many of his neighbors, weaves along cactus-lined, winding trails
and through rocky ravines in search of the maguey and the treasured escamoles
below. Using a crowbar, campesinos
dig below the maguey into ant colonies.
Then they carefully scoop out the eggs with their bare hands and dump
them into duffel bags that they shake to remove any lingering ants.
Also, inside the maguey, campesinos
carve out two types of butterfly larvae [actually, one is a moth larva], or gusanos
(goo-SAH-nohs), which are also sold and served as delicacies in Mexican restaurants. White gusanos, which are abundant in
June and October, are carefully removed from the maguey with a hook by
grabbing the worms' heads. Campesinos
sell the escamoles and gusanos to distributors in a Pachuca
market some 20 miles away for a handful of dollars. The distributor then sells the escamoles and gusanos
to restaurants that charge as much as $25 per plate. The food is served fried or roasted in butter, chili or garlic
sauce. [At the Fonda Don Chon
restaurant in Mexico City's historic district], the plates range in cost from
$20 for a load of 500 to 1000 escamoles, to $6 for a plate of 200 to 300
jumilies. Across town, the
Riscal Restaurant serves 30 to 40 orders each of escamoles and gusanos
every day.
Various preparations
of escamoles and Agave larvae are the house specialties of the Restaurant La
Cava del Leon (see The Food Insects Newsletter 8(2): 9, 1995 [personal
comm. from Dr. Carlos Blanco, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, to G.R. DeFoliart]).
Interestingly, at 40.00 "new pesos" (at the time, 6 new pesos = US
$1) the insect dishes are substantially more expensive than meats, poultry and
other items on the menu. Dr. Blanco
commented that these prices don't seem too expensive in US currency, but the minimum
wage in Mexico is low. Professor J.
Mitsuhashi (1996) who visited the restaurant in August 1995 reported
that prices of the insect dishes had increased (in less than one year) to 63.00
pesos.
Mexican insect cuisine
and other pre-Columbian food has received much attention in U.S. newspapers and
magazines in the past several years.
The November 1991 issue of The Food Insects Newsletter (4(3):
8-9, 11) published a sampling of magazine articles including one from American
Way (American Airlines), one from Sports Illustrated and two from Natural
History, both of the latter by food author Raymond Sokolov. The restaurant Don Chon's in Mexico City has
been the recipient of a particularly great amount of publicity, not only for
the quality of its creations but its prices of $20 to $30 per plate.
Coleoptera
Beetles and weevils of
at least 10 families and more than 25 species are consumed in Mexico. It is
mainly the larvae that are eaten, but some pupae and adults also.
Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)
Calcophora sp., larva
For proximate analyses
and caloric content, see Mexico Table 9.
Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)
Aplagiognathus spinosus Newman, larva, pupa
Aplagiognathus sp., larva
Arophalus afin rusticus Linn., larva, pupa
Callipogon barbatus Fabr., larva, pupa, adult
Lagocheirus rogersi Bates, larva, pupa, adult
Stenodontes cer. maxillosus Drury, larva, pupa
Trichoderes pini Chevr., larva, pupa
The first report of
cerambycid larvae by scientific name was that of Simmonds (1885:
353) who mentioned that the natives of Mexico make the larva of the beetle Trichoderes
pini a part of their fare. The larvae of this family are known as gusanos
de los palos, or "worms of the wood." A. spinosus is also called gusanos de elite podrido. Cerambycid larvae are very high in fat,
ranging from 34.3% to 56.1% on a dry weight basis, and in energy from 4739 to
6530 kcal/1000 g (Mexico Table 9).
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989) have treated several aspects of edible cerambycids in
Mexico (pp. 21, 58, 71, 83-84). A. spinosus, A. rusticus, L.
rogersi and T. pini occur in the temperate and cold zones, while C.
barbatus and S. maxillosus are found in the lower tropical humid
areas (p. 71). Most of the species are consumed the year-round with peak
consumption during the summer months, but A. rusticus is consumed in
large quantities from June through November. The very large larvae of Aplagiognathus
spinosus are eaten roasted, in tacos and have a flavor similar to pork
rinds (p. 84). Because of its high fat content, it is frequently cut in half
longitudinally and put into the pot as a source of fat (J.R.E. de Conconi,
pers. comm. 1986). Ramos-Elorduy and Pino mention (p. 83) that C.
barbatus is known as ticoco in Oaxaca, as tumbas in Chiapas,
and as cuautotolin in Puebla. The larvae, adult bodies, or simply the
adult abdomens are eaten roasted with salt in tacos. Larvae and adults of L.
rogersi are eaten roasted.
See also Barrera and
Bassols (1953) in the Introduction and Hunn (1977) under References Cited.
Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles)
Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say, larva
Larvae of this species
are consumed in the state of Oaxaca (Conconi et al 1984a).
Cicindelidae (tiger beetles)
Cicindela curvata Chevr., larva
Cicindela roseiventris Chevr., larva
Theodorides (1949: 2)
states that these two cicindelid beetles, soaked in water or alcohol, give
Mexico a spicy and fragrant drink well-liked for its stimulating
properties. They are called escarabajos tigre, or "tiger
scarab" and, according to Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1989),
both occur in the temperate and cold zones (p. 71). Consumption of both species
peaks in the summer, but C. roseiventris has a longer season (p. 58).
Curculionidae (snout beetles, weevils)
Metamasius spinolae Vaurie, larva, pupa
Rhynchophorus palmarum Linn., larva, pupa
Scyphophorus acupunctatus Gyllenhal, larva, pupa
Three species are
reported (Conconi et al 1984a). Proximate analysis of Metamasius
spinolae larvae (known as picudo del nopal), which feed in the nopal
cactus, revealed a crude protein content of 69.05% and fat content of 7.44%
(see Conconi and Pino 1979 above, and Table 6). Proximate analyses as well as
energy values for M. spinolae and S. acupunctatus were reported
by Conconi and Pino (1990) (Introduction and Table 9). Conconi et al (1983b) reported
a high protein chemical value, 81%, for the larva of Scyphophorus
acupunctatus, which breeds in the maguey, and is known as picudodel
maguey. These larvae, according to Ramos-Elorduy and Pino(1989,
p. 83), "taste like tender beans and are eaten roasted in tacos, or mixed
with a sauce." They are high in
the amino acid tryptophane and considered to be of nutritional importance. For
proximate analyses and caloric content of M. spinolae and S.
acupunctatus larvae, see Mexico Table 9. Vernacular names for R.
palmarum are gusano del coyal and gusano de la palma.
See also Conconi and
Pino (1979) in the Introduction.
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister explanatus Leconte, larva, pupa, adult
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, pp. 18-19) cite earlier works regarding the use of Cybister
(known as atopinan or cucarachas de agua) as food. They are
eaten roasted with salt and in tacos.
See also Smith (1807) under References Cited.
Histeridae (hister beetles)
Homolepta sp., larva
The larvae are
consumed in Oaxaca (Conconi et al 1984a). For proximate analyses and
caloric content, see Mexico Table 9.
Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Tropisternus tinctis Sharpe, larva, pupa, adult
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, p. 22) reported the common name as atelepitz. See also Smith (1807) under References
Cited.
Passalidae (bess beetles)
Oleus reinator Trequi, larva, pupa
Passalus af. punctiger Lep. & Serv., larva, pupa
The larvae of 0.
reinator are known as ticoco or gusanos de los palos, those
of P. punctiger as bechano or gusanos de los palos (Conconi
et al 1984a). For proximate analyses and caloric content of these species,
see Mexico Table 9.
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Melolontha sp., larva
Phyllophaga rubella (author?), larva
Phyllophaga spp., larvae, pupae
Strategus sp., larva
Xyloryctes spp., larvae, pupae
Species of the genera Phyllophaga
and Xyloryctes are found in the temperate zones and have a
relatively short harvest season (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989, pp.
58, 71). The vernacular name for Xyloryctes is escarabajo rinoceronte,
the names for Phyllophaga spp. are gusano del la tierra and gallina
ciega. For proximate analyses and caloric content of these two genera, see
Mexico Table 9.
See also Hunn (1977)
under References Cited.
Tenebrionidae (darkling beetles)
Tenebrio molitor Linn., larva, pupa
For proximate analyses
and caloric content, see Mexico Table 9.
Family uncertain
Paxillus leachi M. & Y., larva
Rhantus sp., adult
For proximate analyses
and caloric content, see Mexico Table 9.
See also Callen (1963) in the Introduction.
Diptera
Larvae, and in some
cases pupae or adults, of at least four species in three families have been
reported.
Ephydridae (shore flies)
Hydropyrus (= Ephydra) hians Say, larva, pupa, adult
Mossilus (= Gymnopa) tibialis Cresson, larva
Amino acid content and
a protein chemical value of 42% were reported for Ephydra hians by Conconi
et al (see 1981c, 1982a above, and Table 8). For proximate analyses and caloric content,
see Mexico Table 9. Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, pp. 27-29) cite earlier authors in describing
the historic use of H. hians in Mexico and provide the following common
names: for larvae, izcahuitli, escahuitli, and ocuiliztac; for
pupae, poxi; for adults, amoitl and michpili. Larvae are
also called gusano del agua and adults mosca del agua. The
authors quote from a 1959 book by F. Hernandez:
The izcahuitli are a mass of small
worms collected in nets in Mexican lakes and placed in big containers, which
are sold in markets called 'tianguis' in Indian language. They are found in the
markets and are black in color, smell like fresh eggs and [have] a consistency
of pressed bread crumbs. They increase the milk of women breastfeeding, and
some use them to make tortillas which they dry and save, even though they don't
keep for a long time. When they are half-cooked, salt and pepper are
added for flavor and don't cause harm.
The authors note that they are still collected in nets, made from
plastic market sacks, then dried in the sun to make tamales. A fisherman told
Ramos-Elorduy the larvae were also used to feed ducks.
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino state that poxi (the fly pupa) is commercialized on a small
scale and exported to Germany for hormone extraction in the manufacture of
cosmetics. The authors mention that H. hians is still plentiful in Lake
Texcoco, but not as abundant as in the past.
See also Smith (1807) under References Cited.
Muscidae (filth flies)
Musca domestica Linn., larva, pupa
Conconi et al (1980)
report preliminary work on Musca domestica, used to recycle organic
matter as a protein supplement for birds. In an abstract, Conconi et al (1981b)
report that the in vitro digestibility of fly, M. domestica, dry
matter is 42% and the percentage of protein digestible is 58%. The amino acid pattern and a protein
chemical value of 58% were reported by Conconi et al (1982a; see
above and Table 8). The larvae and pupae both are known as gusano del queso (Conconi
et al 1984a). For proximate
analyses and caloric content, see Mexico Table 9.
Stratiomyidae (soldier flies)
Larvae of undetermined
species are known as gusanos planos de maguey (Conconi et al 1984a).
Syrphidae (flower flies)
Copestylum haaggii J., larva
Larvae of syrphid
flies are known as gusanos planos de maguey (Conconi et al 1984a).
For proximate analyses and caloric content of C. haaggii, see Mexico
Table 9.
Hemiptera
At least 16 species in
five families are consumed in Mexico. Eggs and/or nymphs and adults are eaten
depending on the species.
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
Abedus ovatus Stal., nymph, adult
Abedus sp., nymph, adult
Belostoma sp., nymph, adult
Lethocerus sp., nymph, adult
The Lethocerus sp.
reported by Conconi and Bourges (1977) may be synonymous with the
Belostoma sp. reported by Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1989,
pp. 19-20). These insects are called cucarachon de agua or
"water roaches." According to
Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1989, p. 81), people collect A. ovatus,
which is the largest of the aquatic insects, and store them dry. They are
ground and mixed with eggs to make a pie that is eaten with sauce. They are
also eaten roasted with salt (p. 19). Abedus sp. is a smaller member of
the genus (p. 20). For proximate analyses and caloric content of A. ovatus,
see Mexico Table 9. See also Hunn
(1977) and Smith (1807) under References Cited.
Coreidae (leaf-footed bugs)
Acanthocephala luctuosa S., nymph, adult
Pachilis gigas B., nymph, adult
Nymphs and adults of Pachilis
gigas (known as chamoes) are consumed directly, or, when fed to
laying hens they provide exactly the shade of orange that Mexicans like in
their egg yolks (J.R.E. de Conconi, pers. comm. 1986). Conconi and Pino (1979
and Table 6) reported a crude protein content of 65.4% and fat content of 19.4%
for P. gigas, which feeds on the mezquite. Conconi et al (1981c,
1982a; see above and Table 8) conducted an amino acid analysis and reported
a protein chemical value of 58%. Ramos-Eloduy
and Pino (1990, and Table 9) reported proximate analysis and calorie
content for both of these species.
Families Corixidae and Notonectidae
Corixidae (water boatmen)
Corisella edulis J., nymph, adult
Corisella (= Corixa) mercenaria Say, egg, nymph, adult
Corisella texcocana Jacz., egg, nymph, adult
Krizousacorixa (= Kirzousacorixa; = Ahauhtlea) azteca, egg, nymph, adult
Krizousacorixa femorata Guerin-Meneville, egg, nymph, adult
Notonectidae (backswimmers)
Notonecta unifasciata Guerin-Meneville, egg, nymph, adult
Ahuahutle, the famous
"Mexican caviar," is composed of the eggs of five species of aquatic
hemipterans, four species in the family Corixidae and one species in the
Notonectidae. The adult bugs, known as axayacatl, are also eaten but
considered less of a delicacy. These hemipterans formerly bred in tremendous
numbers in the alkaline lakes of Mexico and were the basis of aquatic farming
for centuries. The bugs and their eggs are harvested by what amounts to setting
oviposition trap lines. Bundles of shore grass are tied together, weighted with
a stone, and then distributed by canoe. After about three weeks, they are
collected and brought ashore to dry in the sun. When dry, the bundles are
shaken and the eggs fall off. Harvests are now much reduced because of lake
pollution and land-filling, particularly around Mexico City as the city
has expanded (J.R.E. de Conconi, pers. comm. 1986).
The food use of these
hemipterans has been recorded back to the time of Sahagun. Sahagun (1557
[1946]; vide Massieu et al 1958) mentioned that the Indians ate the
aquatic insects (Hemiptera) known as "axayacatl" after drying them in
sunlight.
Gage (1721, I:
144) states (translation): "During
a certain time of the year the inhabitants collected with nets a lemon powder
which accumulates on the waters of the Lake of Mexico, and which resembles
meerschaum. This they collected in great piles and formed them into flat cakes
in the shape of bricks. These bricks
are not only sold in the market there, but in many distant towns as well. They
ate them with as much appetite as if they were the best European cheese."
Mayer (1844: 218;
vide Bodenheimer 1951: 297) stated:
On the lake of Tescuco I saw some
people occupied collecting the eggs of flies on herbs and from rags which are
planted in long rows as traps for these insects. These eggs, called agayacatl,
were a favoured food of the Indians long before the conquest. When they are
cooked in pastry, they do not differ from the eggs of fishes, having the same
flavour and appearance. They are rather a delicacy and I find that they also
are found on the tables of the rich in the capital.
Kirkaldy (1898) summarized
earlier literature and differences in the size, shape, surface structure, and
manner of attachment of the ova of Notonecta americana and Corixa
mercenaria. He notes that arrangements had recently been completed for
importing to England both adult bugs and ova for use as food for insectivorous
birds, game, fish, etc. He states: "Some idea of the enormous swarms of C.
mercenaria may be gathered from the fact that it is being imported by
the ton! and I have calculated, somewhat roughly, that each ton will
contain little short of 250 millions of individuals!! As to the ova, they are beyond computation."
Kirkaldy cites Thomas
Gage (1625) who mentioned cakes made of a "kind of froth" from the
Mexican lakes (undoubtedly the aquatic Hemiptera known as "ahuahutle"
or "axayacatl" ), which had an extensive sale among the inhabitants,
a custom which undoubtedly had descended from remote antiquity. Kirkaldy cites F.E. Guerin-Meneville
(1857) who enumerated three species involved as food, Corixa mercenaria Say,
and two which he considered as new, Corixa femorata and Notonecta
unifasciata (which Kirkaldy considered synonymous with N. americana Fabr.). Also cited is Virlet d'Aoust (1858) who
reviewed the previous literature and noted that the adult bugs of both genera
leave the water at night for "love meetings" and other types of
dispersion. As described by Kirkaldy, "They are captured with nets, dried,
and (according to Virlet d'Aoust) sold as 'bird food' under the name
'moschitos,' although Clavigero states that the Mexicans eat them dried and
dressed with saltpetre!"
Apparently continuing to draw on Virlet d'Aoust's paper, Kirkaldy
states:
At the proper season bundles of
rushes are placed in the lake shallows, and upon these the ova - named by
the Mexicans 'Axayacatl' or 'waterface' - are deposited, gathered by the
natives and made with meal into cakes; these are eaten au naturel or with green
chilies! They are also cooked without further preparation, having then the
appearance of fish roe, when they are called 'Ahuauhtli' or 'waterwheat'; they
are said to have a delicate flavour and not to be disdained at fashionable
tables, Virlet d'Aoust comparing it to Caviare.
Barber (1928) cites
Thomas Say (1832) who, in describing Corixa mercenaria as a new species,
remarks that: "Passing through the market in the city of Mexico I obtained
a few specimens from the quantity of at least a peck, exposed for sale by an
Aztec woman. They are made use of as food."
China (1931; vide
Bodenheimer 1951: 295) mentions ahuatle as a locally important food, as
does Portevin (1933: 337; vide Bodenheimer, p. 296).
Ancona (1933a)
conducted extensive studies on the ecology of the aquatic hemipteran species of
which "ahuautle" is composed and described their collection and use
as follows:
The 'ahuautle' fishermen in
Sochiaca, Chimalhuacan, and Texcoco, collect these insects in great quantities
in the channels connected to the lagoon when the rainy season starts
[April]. For this collection they use nets
made of canvas measuring approximately 1 m (length) by 60 cm (width), which
they submerge in the 'alpacle' nests. The insects are placed in baskets to dry
in the sun. They are sold in the streets and markets of the city under the
name, 'mosca for the birds.' Ground, they are used in small delicious pies.
They are sold not only in Texcoco, but also in the markets of Chimalhuacan,
Xochitenco, Sochiaca and Los Reyes, and also in Mexico City, especially at 'La
Merced' and 'San Juan.' In May, June and July, the 'ahuautle' eggs (Krizousacorixa
azteca Jacz., Krizousacorixa femorata Guer., Corisella texcocana Jacz.,
Corisella mercenaria Say) are often used by our people who fry them with
eggs, which has a delicious taste similar to shrimp. Dried, they are kept in
cupboards and kept as seasoning in preparing a typical dish from Nochebuena
called 'revoltijo.' The common insects known as 'ahuautle' also include Notonecta
unifasciata Guer., as well as their eggs. The population near Lake Texcoco
has been collecting and exporting these eggs and insects to many places in
England and Germany where they are used to feed fish in nurseries. According to
information supplied by people in the business, 1 kg of eggs and insects costs
75 or 80 centavos at the markets in Texcoco, Chapingo, San Vicente and Los Reyes.
During the off season it may reach $1 or $1.25 in the warehouses.
Ancona cited several
early authors. Citing Francisco
Hernandez (1649), the Aztec Indians used the term "axayacatl" or
"axaxayactl" for "small lake flies which reproduce on the
surface of water, and which are collected with nets from Mexican lakes during
certain times of the year. The eggs ["ahauautle" or
"aguaucle"] are so abundant that when ground they form a dough that
is sold in markets, afterwards they are cooked by the Indians in potassium
nitrate water, and wrapped in corn leaves in the form of a cone."
Clavijero (1780) is
cited by Ancona as follows:
. . . because of the isolation in
which some tribes from near the lake live, and because of poor resources, they
eat not only aquatic plants, but also amphibians from the lakes, and insects
from the swamps such as 'atetepiz' and 'atopinan' and also the eggs of the
'axayacatl.' These, as well as other lime substances taken from the surface of
the water, are dried in the sun and used to manufacture a type of food, similar
in flavor to cheese, called 'tecuitlatl.'
Ancona cited Leon
Coindet (1867) that, "The cooked eggs of the 'axayacatl' are known under
the name of 'ahuautli' and are well-liked by Mexicans. The insects are
sold on streets, and referred to by the native name of 'mosco for the
birds.'"
Torre-Bueno (1942)
called attention to the excellent study on "ahuautle" and the ecology
of Lake Texcoco by Ancona (1933a), but questioned the accuracy of Ancona's
enumeration of fewer than five nymphal instars, as with rare exceptions, five
is the number observed in waterbugs.
Bachstez and Aragon (1945)
provide good historical background on the use of "ahuauhtli." The authors point out that cattle, goats and
sheep were unknown in Mexico prior to the conquest, and life was maintained
mainly by vegetables, corn, fish and poultry, all of which were apparently
abundant. A number of insects were considered delicacies, among which was the
"Ahuauhtli of Texcoco," which consists of the eggs of Krizousacorixa
azteca Jacz., K. texcocana Jacz. and Corisella mercenaria Say.
Until World War II, the adult bugs, known as 'Axayacatl," were exported in
carload quantities to Holland and from there to Germany where they were used in
canary bird food. A Dutch company in Mexico City, until about 1938, purchased
the bugs from the natives of Texcoco who brought them to the city in bags and
received as much as one peso twenty-five per kilo, or the equivalent of
about 16¢ U.S. per pound. The eggs are deposited at the beginning of the rainy
season in tremendous numbers on the surface of the stagnant alkali waters of
Lake Texcoco or on reeds growing in the lake. The eggs are collected and
brought to market from June to October.
According to Bachstez
and Aragon, Sahagun states that at the court of Emperor Moctezuma and the Aztec
kings that preceded him prior to the tenth century, the "Ahuauhtli"
were especially prepared during the ceremony dedicated to the god Xiuhtecutli.
They were brought into Tenochtitlan by native runners from Texcoco so that the
emperor would have them fresh for breakfast. They were called
"aguaucle" by the common people, meaning "seeds of the
water."
Bachstez and Aragon
cite several earlier authors for the information that the ahuauhtli were usually
prepared with the eggs of fowl in the form of an omelette. The conquistadores
called them "Mexican caviar," but did not particularly care for them.
Bachstez and Aragon state that: "Today they may still be found on sale in
the markets of the old town of Texcoco as well as at Los Reyes, a village
bordering upon the lake, and at the La Merced and San Juan markets in Mexico
City. Many of the typical Mexican restaurants serve them as a delicacy in much
the same manner as they serve Maguey cactus worms. The flavor is quite similar
to that of crab or caviar."
Bachstez and Aragon
conducted the first chemical analysis of the ahuauhtli (eggs) and found, using
air-dried material: water 9.3%; ash 6.5%, with calcium 0.33%, iron 0.20%;
fat 5.7%; protein 77.0% and lecithin 17.4%. Hydrolysis of the protein gave
principally histidine and arginine, and the authors suggest that the eggs
should be investigated as an economical commercial source of these amino acids.
Bachstez and Deschamps
(1950)
mention that, based on descriptions of Old Mexico, "ahuautle" or
"Mexican caviar" was probably a valuable food source long before the
conquest of Mexico by Cortez. They are consumed "today" as a light
dish which is prepared with eggs, the taste of which resembles that of caviar
or clams. The eggs are deposited in Lake Texcoco in large numbers during the
rainy season; the farmers of the area know these eggs and take them to market.
A sample (containing 8.74% water) prepared for amino acid analysis contained
72.1% protein and yielded (as percent of total N): arginine 14.28%; cysteine
0.94%; histidine 7.52%; lysine 5.79%; proline-oxyproline 7.96%; other
amino acids 52.2%; ammonium 6.72%.
Other studies on
nutrient content of ahuahutle and axayacatl have been conducted
by Cravioto et al (1951), Grimaldo et al (1957), Massieu
et al (1958), Conconi and Bourges (1977, on Corisella
mercenaria only), and Conconi et al (1981a) (see Introduction
and Tables 1, 2, 3 and 7). Ahuahutle is high in the amino acids cystine,
tyrosine and arginine, and the vitamins niacin and riboflavin. Axayacatl is
high in tryptophan, iron, niacin and riboflavin. See also Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990) in the
Introduction and Table 9 for proximate analyses and energy content.
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, pp. 15-17, 80-82) cite some of the authors
cited above and some additional authors in their summary of the use of these
insects in old Mexico. They note that ahuahutle is still harvested in
the same way as in the past (although in reduced amounts because of reduced lake
surface), still sold in many markets, eaten in tortillas with eggs and also in
tamales, eaten daily in large restaurants in the capital, and still exported to
Germany and Great Britain as fish and bird feed.
See also Barrera and
Bassols (1953) and Curran (1937) in the Introduction, and Cowan (1865) under
References Cited.
Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
See Hunn (1977) under
References Cited.
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Edessa conspersa Stal., nymph, adult
Edessa mexicana Stal., nymph, adult
Edessa petersii Stal., nymph, adult
Euchistus crenator Stal., nymph, adult
Euchistus lineatus Walk., nymph, adult
Euchistus strennus Distant (= zopilotensis Distant), nymph, adult
Euchistus (= Atizies) sufultus Smith, nymph, adult
Euchistus (= Atizies) taxcoensis Ancona, nymph, adult
Pharylpia fasciata (author?), nymph, adult
These insects are
widely consumed and are collectively known as "jumiles," with one
species, Atizies taxcoensis, being known as "jumiles de
Taxco." Bugs from the city of
Taxco are particularly famous. There is a "Day of the Stink Bug in
November, and a temple in the Hill of the Stink Bug, near Taxco (Conconi
1982a: 92-93, 120).
The bugs are kept
alive, usually mixed with leaves, in jars or baskets in the markets, and are
sold in small packages of 10 bugs for 5 pesos. Or, they may be sold by the
"hand full." The price varies according to season and abundance in
the market. In some markets, a vendor waits on an average of 15 persons per
hour, and income may be about 300 pesos per day. The bugs are eaten alive in
tacos, or with chile sauce and rice adding a pleasant flavor. They may also be
fried with onion, persil, garlic, "manzano chile" and lemon juice
(J.R.E. de Conconi, pers. comm. 1986). As the bugs have a stink gland, they are
roasted first in a metallic pot to eliminate the secretions of the gland.
Ancona (1932-1933)
states that the "jumiles," or stink bugs are used as seasoning in
foods by Mexicans who are ignorant of the microbial flora and fauna which may,
in many cases, contaminate the digestive tracts of insects (no specific
examples are given, however). Material was studied from the states of Mexico,
Guerrero, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Hidalgo and Morelos, and included Euschistus
crenator Stal., E. lineatus Walk., Edessa mexicana Stal, Atizies
sufultus Smith and A. taxcoensis, the latter being described as a
new species in this paper. The two Atizies species were found only in
the State of Guerrero. The "jumiles" are plentiful from November to
February and disappear when the first rains arrive. They are found frequently
in shrubs bordering maize plantations, living among the rocks and dried leaves
and on the smaller branches of broad-leaved trees.
Ancona describes
various orifices that externally lubricate the body of the "jumiles,"
and he states that the insects have an unpleasant odor that increases when they
are touched. Their use as food is described as follows:
Even though they have this strong
odor, people eat them toasted, grinding them and eating with tomato 'salsa,'
reporting a pleasant taste of sesame. They are also fried in their own oily
secretion, or in olive oil and put into tortillas with lemon sauce and salt
with a taste like fried potato peels, the manner in which it is most used by
the people. In Taxco and other places of the State [Guerrero], as well as in
the State of Morelos, poor people eat them raw, chewing the posterior part of
their bellies, sucking their contents, believing that these insects cure
dyspepsia, and skin problems.
Ancona (1933b) adds
Euschistus zopilotensis Distant to the list of confirmed species known
as "jumiles." The bugs appeared as first instars by the end of
December and as adults by mid-January in the corn fields and pine woods
around Cuautla and Amileingo. Ancona describes their use as follows:
In the markets at these locations
they are used as food seasoning, fried, ground with chili or pepper and as a
powder added to food (preferably in rice soups) or are used whole in tomato
'salsa' and placed over hot tortillas. We also saw them fried and eaten with
lemon and salt, as they are used in Taxco. Even though they have a bad odor,
poor people eat them alive, chewing the lower part of their bellies and sucking
their contents, because they believe that they are good medicine for
rheumatism.
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, pp. 17-19, 82) added P. fasciata to the
species reported as eaten and they indicate that many other species of
pentatomids are eaten (translation): "Presently 'jumiles' (stink bugs)
means virtually any edible Hemiptera from the families Pentatomidae and
Coreidae, and the number of species grows to 23, with the State of Guerrero
having 18 species, but all species are eaten the same way."
Studies on nutrient
content of jumiles have been conducted by (see Introduction) Cravioto et al (1951),
Grimaldo et al (1957), Massieu et al (1958, 1959), Conconi
and Bourges (1977, Atizies taxcoensis), Conconi et al (1981a,
A. taxcoensis) and Conconi et al (l982a, Euschistus
strennus) (see also Tables l-5, 7 and 8). The jumiles are high in
tryptophan, fat, niacin and riboflavin, but low (as shown for A. taxcoensis)
in lysine. Protein chemical values of Atizies taxcoensis and Euschistus
strennus were reported as l0% and 56%, respectively, by Conconi et al (1982a). See also Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990)
in the Introduction and Mexico Table 9 for proximate analyses and calorie
content.
See also Conconi
(1984) in the Introduction.
Family uncertain
Brachymona arcana tenebrosa M., nymph, adult
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) provide proximate analyses and caloric content of this
species (Table 9).
Homoptera
Aphididae (aphids)
Regarding honeydew, Clavigero
(1786; Lake and Gray translation 1937: 51) states:
In some places near the dry stream
beds, there grows a small, common reed grass, the thickness of the little
finger or, when larger, the index finger. . . . This little reed is the only
plant in California on which manna is seen. This is a very sweet and whitish
substance called by the Cochimies cadese, which means 'cane juice.' And
they gave this very name to sugar when they became acquainted with it and
tasted it. From this it is seen that, although barbarians, they thought about
the origin of manna better than did our ancient philosophers, who considered it
dew. . . .
Constanso (1911)
reported: "A multitude of Indians came to the camp [south of San Diego,
California] with presents of seeds, acorns, and honeycombs formed on frames of
cane [presumably aphid honeydew]. They were a very good-natured and
affectionate people."
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Proarna sp., adult
Tibicen puinosa S., adult
Conconi and Pino (1979)
conducted a proximate analysis of Proarna sp. adults, finding a crude
protein and fat content of 72.0% and 4.4%, respectively (Table 6). Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) provide proximate analyses and caloric content for
both of the above species (Mexico Table 9). Proarna is called chichara
(Conconi et al 1984a). See also
Hunn (1977) under References Cited.
Membracidae (treehoppers)
Hoplophorion (= Metcalfiella) monograma Germar, nymph, adult
Umbonia reclinata Germar, nymph, adult
Umbonia sp., nymph, adult
Hoplophorion monograma, known as the
"parakeet of the aguacate," feeds on this tree (Persea mexicana).
They are eaten raw or roasted in tacos, and people say they taste like
"aguacate" (Conconi 1982a: 121). They are abundant in the
States of Mexico, Michoacan and Oaxaca. Conconi et al (1983b)
conducted amino acid analysis of H. monograma and calculated a protein
chemical value of 96%, which is excellent and the highest value yet reported for
an insect. Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990) provide proximate
analyses and caloric content of both of these species (Table 9). H. monograma is known as periquito
del aguacate and U. reclinata as torito (Conconi et al
1984a).
Hymenoptera
More than 35 species
of Hymenoptera in three families have been reported as food in Mexico.
Apidae (honey bees, bumble bees)
Apis mellifera Linn. egg, larva, pupa
Bombus diligens (author?), adult
Bombus formosus (author), adult
Bombus medius (author?), adult
Lestrimelita limao Sm., egg, larva, pupa
Melipona beeckei Bennet, egg, larva, pupa
Melipona fasciata querreroensis Schw., egg, larva, pupa
Partamona sp., egg, larva, pupa
Scaptotrigona mexicana G., egg, larva, pupa
Trigona jaty Fabr., egg, larva, pupa
Trigona nigra nigra Cress, egg, larva, pupa
Trigona sp., egg, larva, pupa
Common names are abeja
prieta for A. mellifera, abejorro for the Bombus species, abeja
que no pica or abeja alazana or pipiioli for M. beeckei,
and abeja sin aquijon for S. mexicana and Trigona sp.
Kellogg (1945)
described beekeeping in Mexican villages, mentioning that, although there are
many modern hives and some large up-to-date apiaries, as much as
two-thirds of the honey crop is produced in crude containers. No mention
is made of bee brood (larva and pupa) consumption. The immature stages of at
least seven species are now known to be consumed, including those of the
domestic honeybee, Apis mellifera. Stingless bees of the genera Melipona,
Scaptotrigona and Trigona are cultivated in small clay jars near the
walls of houses and in small hollowed trunks placed to face east. Both the
honey and the brood are utilized. Conconi et al (1984a) reported
a protein chemical value of 58% for Trigona sp. Ramos-Elorduy and
Pino (1990, Introduction and Table 9) provide data on proximate
analyses and caloric content.
See Callen (1963) and
Curran (1937) in the Introduction, and Pennington (1969) under References
Cited.
Diprionidae (conifer sawflies)
Neodiprion guilletei (author?), prepupa
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino provide a proximate analysis of this species (Table 9).
Formicidae (ants)
Atta cephalotes Linn., adult reproductive
Atta mexicana Bourmeir, adult
Liometopum apiculatum Mayr., egg, larva, pupa
Liometopum occidentale var. luctuosum W., egg, larva, pupa
Myrmecosystus (= Formica) melliger Llava (= melligera), adult
Myrmecosystus mexicanus W., adult
Pogonomyrmex sp., larva, pupa
Genus Atta. Two species are reported as food in Mexico, A.
cephalotes and A. mexicana, known as "hormiga arriera ",
"hormiga chicatana" or "noku." Only the winged adults are eaten, and, generally, the females are
more flavorful than the males. They are often fried, and are especially enjoyed
by children. According to Conconi (1982a: 129-130), the
winged A. mexicana emerge from their nests for the mating flight early
in the morning and, at Pochutla, Oaxaca, the people come to the mating sites
after l am. They capture up to 20 liters of ants per person. At Pochutla and
also in Huatusco, Veracruz and probably elsewhere, collecting these ants is a
ritual among the people who get together to collect them at the beginning of
the mating flights. Studies on nutrient content of Atta ants have been
conducted by (see Introduction) Conconi and Bourges (1977), Conconi
and Pino (1979), Conconi et al (1981a, 1982a).
The latter authors (1982a) calculated a protein chemical value of 60% for A.
mexicana. See also Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table 9 for proximate
analyses and caloric content.
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989, pp. 35-37, 90) state that in Oaxaca up to 2 kg per
person are collected, and this exerts a degree of control of these pests which
defoliate fruit trees, as collection of the reproductives prevents
establishment of new colonies. There is no established commerce in these ants,
as there are no middlemen, but they are sold in local markets. In Veracruz,
according to the authors, the ants are ground, refrigerated and eaten in
tortillas with peanut cream. In Oaxaca they are prepared in sauces with chile
and herbs and said to taste like crabs. Kunckell D'Herculais in 1882 is cited
by the authors as saying that, with a little salt abdomens of A. mexicana loaded
with eggs "was one of the most exquisite foods which the Indians
ate."
Genus Liometopum. Conconi (1982a: 95) states (translation): "The
'escamole' ants, or 'maicitos' (small corn) as they are also called, have a
very delicate flavor, as if they were nuts fried in butter. They are eaten
fried, with eggs, in black butter or by themselves. They are also fried with
onions, garlic, etc. Because of their flavor and the versatility of their use
they are sought after and called 'delicious.'" The two species of Liometopum, L. apiculatum and L.
occidentale var. luctuosum are found in different habitats, the
former in dry or semi-dry areas such as in Hidalgo, and the latter in
wooded areas such as in Michoacan. According to Dr. de Conconi (pers. comm
1986), digging out the underground nest (or trabecula) where the escamoles are
found is very labor-intensive. According to Conconi (1982a: 130), the two
species have slightly different flavors. As noted earlier (also on p. 130),
there is a great demand for escamoles and they are sold in good restaurants. An
economic survey revealed that the people collecting escamoles, known as
"escamoleros,” sometimes make more money than most rural persons do during
the entire year. Although called "ant eggs," the escamoles are mainly
pupae.
Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989: 31-34, 91) note that "escamoles" are
eaten by all social classes in Mexico and that they are the most enjoyable and
expensive edible insect in the markets.
In 1983, they cost 4,800 pesos per kilo, but now (1988), the cost is
80,000 pesos and the demand is increasing.
They are served in the best restaurants and are exported to the United
States, Japan and elsewhere. In 1988, a
Mexican company was exporting canned escamoles to Canada where they sold for
$50 (Canadian dollars) per 30-gram can.
In Hidalgo, the nests are private property and cared for well. After harvest of ants from the nest (2 or 3
times per year between February and June), the nest is covered with nopal,
dried grass, fresh weeds, etc. in order to maintain an environment suitable for
survival and regrowth of the colony.
The Liometopum ant is considered such a special treat that it is
the subject of songs, dances and festivities.
Studies on nutrient
content of Liometopum have been conducted by (see Introduction) Conconi
and Bourges (1977), Conconi and Pino (1979), and Conconi et al (1981a, 1982a)
(see also Tables 5-8). Conconi et al (1982b) report preliminary studies
on the life cycles of Liometopum apiculatum and L. occidentale var.
luctuosum. Immature reproductives of the latter were found to contain
41.68% protein, and immature workers 48.26% (dry weight) or about the same as
found previously for L. apiculatum. The immature workers were found to
be rich in lysine, methionine plus cysteine, and leucine, while immature
reproductives were rich in threonine, valine, isoleucine, phenylalanine plus
tyrosine, and tryptophan. See also Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table 9 for proximate
analyses and caloric content.
Conconi et al (1983a)
report preliminary results of a study on how colonies of Liometopum
apiculatum are founded, and Conconi et al (1984b) report
results of a study on the biology of L. apiculatum.
Packard (1885),
citing information from a J.M. Carter, reported that the larva of an ant
"living in oven-like hills" is eaten by the Otomite Indians.
Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1989, p. 32) suggest that the ant referred to was
Liometopum.
Genus Myrmecosystus. Pablo de Llave (1832) is quoted by
Wheeler (1908: 361) regarding the honey ant, Formica melligera, which
the peasants call busileras:
He assured me that the inhabitants
of these nests are a species of small ant which does not make an earthen mound
at the entrance of its dwelling, and that in following the excavations and
removing the earth, one comes upon a kind of gallery from the ceiling of which
the busileras hang suspended and huddled together, covering both the roof and
the walls of the gallery. He told me also that the peasant women and children
are well acquainted with these nests, that they seek them assiduously for the
purpose of obtaining the honey and that when they are going to make a present
of them, they take hold of them very cautiously, carefully remove the head and
thorax and then place them in a dish; but if the insects are to be eaten as
soon as found, the saccharine portion is sucked out and the remainder thrown
away. The head and thorax are removed, I was told, to prevent the ants from
injuring one another. . . .
Weatherill (1854)
analyzed an alcohol-preserved sample of Mexican honey ants and found them
to be "a nearly pure solution of the sugar, so-called, of fruits,
which is in a state of hydration, isomeric with grape sugar, C12H14014, and
differing from grape sugar in not crystallizing." He reported that the
average quantity of honey per ant weighed 0.3942 grams or 8.2 times the weight
of the body. Honey ants were discussed by Langstroth and Leidy (1854)
on the occasion of Langstroth's presentation of specimens from Matarnoras to
the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. They were described as living
globular repositories analagous to the honey combs of bees.
Simmonds (1885: 369)
mentions that the translucid abdomens of the ant, Myrmecocystus melligerus
[M. melliger =], which contain a syrupy fluid, are eagerly sucked by the
children and commonly employed in cases of earache. The ants are fastened to
square pieces of paper and are sold by the dozens. Bodenheimer (1951:
300) cites Brygoo (1946) who in turn cites an earlier, undated source that
1,000 honeypots are required to yield one liter of honey.
"Honey pot"
ants, M. melliger and M. mexicanus, are still a sweet treat in
Mexico today. They are held by the front end and the abdomen is bitten off.
They come in different flavors, varying with the color of the abdomen: if
brown, they are called "coca cola" ants; if yellow-orange,
"butter" ants; or if yellow, "vinegar" ants (J.R.E.. de
Conconi, pers. comm. 1986). Conconi and Pino (1979) conducted a
proximate analysis of M. melliger.
Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990) provide data on proximate
analysis and caloric content.
Conway (1994)
presents information on the biology and ecology of M. mexicanus
summarized under the following subject headings: honey ant habitat, nest
density, population size, reproductives and nuptial activity, guests and
parasites, repletes, nest architecture, circadian and seasonal activity, food
sources, intraspecific and interspecific competition, and predators.
Also see Cowan (1865)
under References.
Genus uncertain
According to Felger
and Moser (1985), the Seri had names for at least eight kinds of
ants, but they were not utilized.
Relative to
Formicidae, see also Barrera and Bassols (1953), Callen (1963), Conconi (1984)
and Smith (1991) in the Introduction, and Pennington (1969) under References
Cited.
Sphecidae (sphecids or mud daubers)
Ammophila sp., immature stages
Recorded by Conconi
et al (1982c) as eaten in Mexico.
Vespidae (wasps, hornets)
Brachygastra azteca (Sauss.), immatures
Brachygastra (= Nectarinia) lecheguana (Latr.), immatures
Brachygastra mellifica (Say), immatures
Mischocyttarus sp., immatures
Parachartegus apicalis (Fabr.), immatures
Polistes canadensis (Linn.), immatures
Polistes instabilis (Sauss.), larva, pupa, adult
Polistes major Palisot de Beauvois., egg, larva, pupa
Polistes sp., egg, larva, pupa
Polybia diguetana du Buysson, immatures
Polybia occidentalis bohemani Holmgren, immatures
Polybia occidentalis nigratella du Buysson, immatures
Polybia parvulina Richards, immatures
Polybia spp., eggs, larvae, pupae
Vespula squamosa Drury, immatures
Conconi et al (1982c)
reported that 12 species of wasps have been recorded as eaten in Mexico
(vernacular names as given by Conconi et al [1984a]): Nectarinia lecheguana,
Polybia occidentalis bohemani ("avispa rayada"), P. o.
nigratella ("avispa huevo de toro"), P. parvulina ("avispa
negra"), Brachygastra azteca ("avispa cola amarilla"), B.
mellifica ("avispas, panal de castilla"), Polistes instabilis
("avispa guittarilla," pupae), P. canadensis, Parachartegus apicalis
("avispa ala blanca"), Vespula squamosa ("avispa panal de
tierra"), and Mischocyttarus sp. (“avispa negra con
franjas”). In general, it is the immature stages that are eaten,
occasionally with the nests, but in the case of Polistes the adults are
also eaten. Protein content ranged from 52.84% to 74.51% (dry basis). Of the
amino acids, only tryptophan was somewhat below F.A.O. (1973) guidelines.
Chemical scores ranged from 51% to 73%, Polybia parvulina being the
highest. Conconi et al (1984a) also reported protein chemical
scores, as follows: Brachygastra azteca 70%, B. mellifica 70%, Parachartegus
apicalis 50%, Polybia parvulina 70%, and Vespula squamosa 70%. See also Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990)
for data on proximate analyses and caloric content.
The total vespids now
known to be eaten is at least 14 species. Combs with wasp brood are sold in the
markets (Conconi 1982a: 131, and pers. comm. 1986). The nests are
collected in nature when there is just a little foundation comb, brought in and
hung on the roofs of farm homes until they reach a large size. This is, in a
way, primitive cultivation. Other methods of collection are also used. To
collect the comb of Brachygastra mellifica, people throw rocks to make
the adult wasps leave, then by using a long, hooked stick, the nest is pulled
down (p. 133). To collect the nests of Vespula squamosa, a fire is built
to drive off the adult wasps. Then the young and the honey can be collected
without being stung (p. 135). Among the largest combs with edible brood are
those of Polybia occidentalis bohemani, which may become one meter in
width (p. 137). Wasp brood, with a little pepper, either fried or roasted, has
the flavor of almonds or walnuts (Conconi, pers. comm. 1986). For the honey-producing
wasps (Polistes spp. don't produce honey), the honey comb is taken home,
cut like a cake and roasted before eating (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989,
pp. 44-45, 92-93).
Clavigero (1786: Lake
and Gray translation 1937: 59) mentions larvae of an unidentified species of
wasp: "Those of the third class are smaller, light, and armed with a
severe sting, which causes inflammation and much pain. Although they do not
make honey, they make nests hanging from the rocks, but in those places which
are sheltered from the rains. The Californians are very fond of these little
worms, and many times they risk the danger of falling when climbing over the
crags to get them from the nests."
Paper wasp (Polistes)
nests, saaij, were crushed and brewed as a tea taken by Seri women to
prevent conception (Felger and Moser 1985).
U T'an Yik'el Kab is a
Spanish-language newsletter published in Yucatan and devoted to preservation
and promotion of traditional Mayan techniques for keeping honey-making social
insects, with emphasis on stingless bees of the genus Melipona. Starr (1992) furnishes a
translation of a recipe by Ada Mex de Canché and Manuelita May which appeared
in issue no. 5 (February 1992):
Wasps of the genus Brachygastra
(Vespidae: Polistinae) are quite common in our area. They build large, round nests of a carton-like material. These wasps are valued by local people for
their honey, which is tasty and aromatic, although rather strong. The larvae are roasted in a pan and then
mixed with sour orange juice and hot red peppers. Finally, they are made into little tacos, ready for eating.
See also Callen
(1963), Curran (1937) and Conconi (1984) in the Introduction, and Pennington
(1969) under References Cited.
Xylocopidae (carpenter bees)
Felger and Moser
mention that the Seri highly esteemed Copni yamaax or "carpenter-bee
its wine," the sweet "beebread" (pollen plus nectar) made by the
carpenter bee (Xylocopa). It was described as being like cream, not
honey, and the people ate a lot of it during the time of year when the bee was
putting this food in the hole for its larvae.
Isoptera
See Callen (1963,
termites in human coprolites) in the Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Cossidae (carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Comadia (= Xyleutes; = Cossus) redtenbachi Hamm., larva
The pink worm of the
maguey, Xyleutes redtenbachi, also called the red agave worm or "gusano
rojo de maguey," is the larva used in tequila bottles. It is sold in
the market, placed in a string forming a necklace. It is also used, raw or
cooked, to season sauces (Conconi l982a: 92).
Ancona (1931), in
the first of his papers on the biology of insects used as food in Mexico,
reports encountering, on an excursion to the State of Oaxaca, vast numbers of
the pink caterpillar that feeds in the maguey cactus, and which are known
locally as "small worms of the salt." In areas of Oaxaca, the
caterpillars invade 5% to 15% of the magueys, but rarely do they reach plague
proportions. The eggs are laid in groups which are easily seen, and plants can
be protected by gathering the eggs during the early months of the year.
According to Ancona, people encourage their protection and development by placing
the eggs in "cubas" of magueys set aside for their production.
In addition to their
use in bottles of mezcali, in Oaxaca these larvae are eaten fried in butter or
their own fat, eaten in tortillas, cooked in rice soup or in tomato sauce,
roasted and ground with salt and red chile (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989:
25-26). In Hidalgo, they are displayed
in large baskets in the markets (p. 87) and may be eaten alive, but normally
they are roasted or fried with salt and eaten in tacos. The authors cite P.M. Alvarado and P.E.
Escamilla (1982) that a plant may have 15 to 30 larvae and people know that
yellow-tipped leaves contain larvae. The authors state that larvae move out of
their plant sites when it rains and are easily collected.
Studies on nutrient content
of C. redtenbachi have been conducted by Conconi and Bourges (1977),
Conconi and Pino (1979) and Conconi et al (1981a, 1982a) (see Introduction
and Tables 5-7). The latter authors (1982a) reported a protein chemical
value of 60%. See also Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table 9 for proximate
analysis and caloric content.
Geometridae (measuringworms)
Synopsia mexicanaria Walk., larva
This species (common
name: pescaditos) was reported by Conconi et al (1984a). Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) provided a proximate analysis and caloric content
(Table 9).
Hepialidae (ghost moths, swifts)
Phassus sp., larva
Phassus trajesa Linn., larva
Phassus triangularis E., larva
Conconi (1982a: 125-126)
notes that the larvae of a tree-infesting Phassus species, known
as "gusanillo," are appreciated for their size and flavor.
Rural people know when the larva is ready to eat by the size of the knots in
the wood. The larvae are also used as medicine for children's diarrhea. See Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table 9 for data on
proximate analysis and caloric value.
Megathymidae (giant skippers)
Aegiale (= Acentrocneme) hesperiaris Kirby, larva
Alzate (1795; vide
Ancona 1934) stated that maguey caterpillars "are so delicious that the
gastronomers from Paris would rather eat them than oysters from Ostende or
pigeon eggs from China." This insect, Aegiale hesperiaris, also
known as the "white agave worm" or "gusano blanco de
maguey," has been relished by the people of Mexico since before the
days of Sahagun. It is now relatively scarce because of over-collecting
(Conconi, pers. comm. 1986).
Ancona (1934)
reported on the food uses and biology of the larva of the skipper butterfly, Aegiale
(Acentrocneme) hesperiaris Kirby, popularly known as the "gusanitos
del maguey" or "caterpillar of the maguey." The Indians in the
States of Puebla and Hidalgo also call the caterpillars
"meocuilines." Ancona describes their use as follows:
Our people are accustomed to eating
the maguey caterpillars fried in butter or fried in their own grease and
wrapped in tortillas. They are a rich food with a pleasant flavor that can be
compared to 'chicharron' . . . . The maguey caterpillars are also eaten roasted
and as small pieces mixed with rice soup, or with 'jitornate salsa.' In the
town of Los Reyes the caterpillars are eaten toasted and ground with salt and
red chili with strong alcoholic beverages and slices of oranges. They are also
used as a powder with many uses and are always among the supplies in the
kitchen of the Mexican poor. In some places peasants eat these caterpillars
alive to cure stomach problems and rheumatism, but this may contaminate
people's digestive tracts by colibacillus.
Ancona cites a thesis by Elena Rojo in 1934 that, under certain
conditions, people can become infected with the"bacillus typhus" as a
result of ingesting maguey caterpillars [Note: To the writer's knowledge, there
has been no confirmation of this].
In biological studies,
Ancona found that third-instar larvae are present in March and April,
fourth instars in May and June, and pre-pupae from July to September.
Bachstez and Aragon (1942)
assert that "gusanos de maguey," the maguey caterpillars of Acentrocneme
hesperiaris (Aztec: "meocuilin"), have been considered a delicacy
in Mexico since before the days of Cortez. For eating, they are fried in their
own grease, and in some places are eaten raw as a medicine for digestive
troubles. They are collected in the early spring and brought to market in small
packages made from the thin covering of the maguey leaf. The authors analyzed
the glycerides of the larval oil, finding the following: glycerides of linoleic
acid (4.3%), oleic acid (60.1%), palmitic acid (30.0%), and stearic acid
(3.6%). The unsaponifiable matter amounted to 2.0%.
Hodge (1949) notes
that the Zapotec Indians in Oaxaca offer fried or toasted "caterpillar
pretzels" (actually the larvae of the skipper butterfly, Aegiale
hesperiaris) as an appetizer to accompany the drinking of alcoholic mescal.
Locally, they are called "gusanitos del maguey" meaning "little
agave caterpillars." They are found throughout the semiarid districts of
Mexico, infesting the fleshy leaves of several species of maguey (Agave spp.),
which is the source of pulque, mescal and tequila. Hodge says:
Instead of attempting the chemical
eradication of these pests, the Indians long ago hit upon a better solution:
they eat them. So popular are they that they may be found in most native
Mexican food markets and are even canned for the grocery store trade. Like the
writer, many a tourist has tried these gusanitos and has found them
tasty and as appetizing as pretzels. For ease in handling they are threaded
into bunches and are individually salted when eaten.
In Oaxaca, the larvae
are placed in a string and a person can collect up to 300 larvae (there may be
up to a dozen larvae per leaf) (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989, pp.
23-24). They are processed and canned
and exported to various countries such as the United States, Canada, France and
Japan where they are sold as gourmet food (pp. 85-86). Ramos-Elorduy and Pino
give additional vernacular names and cite several earlier authors concerning the high demand for these larvae by
people of all social classes in Mexico, and their sale for high prices in the
best restaurants in Mexico City.
Angela Corelis (1994)
translates instructions from the Gran Libro de Coaina Mexicana by Alicia
Gironella de'Angeli and Jorge de'Angeli on how to prepare meocuiles, or
maguey larvae. The larvae are found in
the roots and are put into sacks made of mixiotes (probably young maguey leaves
- also used for tamale coverings).
"The meocuiles are rinsed, dried, then toasted on a comal (a
grill - not open) or fried with a little oil until golden. Mix guacamole and meocuile
worms to make delicious tacos."
Additional studies on nutrient content have been conducted
(see Introduction) by Cravioto et al (1951), Grimaldo et al (1957), Massieu et
al (1958), and Conconi and Pino (1979) (Tables 1, 3 and 6). The larvae are especially
high in fat content. See, in addition, Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table 9 for proximate
analysis and caloric content.
See also Conconi
(1984), Conconi and Pino (1979), Curran (1937), Dunlap (1987) and Smith (1991)
in the Introduction.
Noctuidae (noctuids)
Ascalapha (= Erebus) odorata Linn., larva
Heliothis zea Boddie, larva
Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith, larva
Conconi and Pino (1979, 1980a)
conducted proximate analyses on the larvae of Heliothis zea, the corn
earworm (Table 6), and Erebus odorata.
See also Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990) for proximate
analyses and caloric content.
Packard (1885)
mentioned a caterpillar, about 5 cm long, and apparently a noctuid, living in
the thick leaves of the maguey or century plant that is eaten either raw or
cooked by Mexican Indians. It was not found in March, but is often abundant in
July. Although Packard called it a "noctuid," it may have actually
been the megathymid, A. hesperiaris. Hunn (1977) mentions
an insect that may be the larva of Thysania agrippina (see Hunn under
References Cited).
The corn worms, H.
zea and S. frugiperda, are known as cinocuili (Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino 1989: 28, 88) and, roasted or fried, they taste like cooked
corn. The farmers generally eat them as
the ears of corn (where they develop) are collected, but, sometimes, because of
the high demand for maguey worms, these larvae are sold as smaller
"tender" worms of the maguey.
The larvae of A. odorata, known as cuecla, taste like
anchovies (p. 29); they are preserved by allowing a day for the digestive tract
to be emptied, then cooked in salt water and dried in the sun.
See also Curran (1937)
in the Introduction.
Pieridae (whites, sulphurs)
Catasticta teutila Doubleday, larva
Eucheira socialis Westwood, larva, pupa
The larva of the
butterfly, Eucheria [sic] socialis, known as "worm of the
madrono" or "gusano del madroño," is eaten throughout
Mexico (Conconi 1982a: 123-125). Rural people
"cultivate" the caterpillars, which live in groups in silken pockets
which they weave. At night, the larvae leave the pockets to feed on madrono
leaves. To harvest the larvae, the silken pockets are collected. The larvae are
fried before being eaten. In Hidalgo, the larvae are known as the "green
worm from Huasteca." Studies on
nutrient content have been conducted by Conconi and Pino (1979), Conconi
et al (1981a) and Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990)
(Tables 6, 7 and 9).
Farmers are familiar
with the biology of E. socialis (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino 1989:
26-27, 87-88). The larvae in each
silken pocket, 300-400 larvae per pocket, are of one sex, so farmers leave 3 or
4 pockets in the madrono trees to ensure the next harvest. Trees may average
about 5 pockets, and a farmer may thus harvest about 500 pockets. The larvae and the pupae are eaten roasted,
with salt and in tacos. These authors
cite C.R. Beutelspacher (1984) that this species is known as
"guenchuis" in the State of Michoacan.
Kevan and Bye (1991)
describe the life history of E. socialis and cite earlier references to
use of the larvae and especially the pupae as food by various peoples in
Mexico. They confirm by observation its
use as food by the Tarahumara. The
larvae are called nowiki, the pupae iwiki; the iwiki are
preferred as food and are boiled or slightly roasted. They are also ground with maize and eaten with atol (boiled maize
chowder) or esquiate (a cold maize porridge).
The pupae are fatty and said to promote healthy teeth, but
over-consumption causes vomiting and headaches. Nowiki are prepared by boiling and stripping to remove the
setae, but they are considered inferior.
The silken tents which the larvae inhabit are known as bolsas. Each bolsa may contain up to 600 larvae and
there may be 20 bolsas on a single tree.
Larvae inhabit the bolsas from July to April, pupation occurs within the
bolsa and duration of the pupal stage is 25-30 days. The authors note that old bolsas have occasionally been found
tied to madrone branches, suggesting attempts at husbandry.
In a report on papers
presented at the annual meeting of the Society of Ethnobiology in Washington,
D.C., Cowen (1992) reports further discussion by Bye and Kevan of
research on E. socialis in northwest Mexico. The pupae, or iwiki, are collected and roasted by the
Tarahumara Indians who sometimes mix them with corn gruel. This serves as a nutritional supplement as
late spring is traditionally a time of food shortage between the end of the dry
season and the beginning of the main agricultural cycle. Snacking on iwiki now appears limited
to the elders of the Tarahumara tribe as the butterfly is threatened by
lumbering of its pine-oak habitat. Bye
and Kevan found evidence, however, that some tribe members now practice animal
husbandry, taking silken bags from madrone trees that contain many of them (as
many as 20 bags per tree), and retying them with leather straps on trees that
lack them. This may promote
repopulation of the butterfly.
Redistribution of cocoons has been observed only in localities where
people eat the pupae. As noted above,
Tarahumara who eat large numbers of pupae sometimes vomit or develop
headaches. As madrone leaves contain
glycosides, chemicals that can affect the heart and are poisonous to humans,
Bye and Kevan point to the need for determining whether they are partially
neutralized by the larvae or pupae and whether cooking the pupae may detoxify
them.
See also Pennington
(1969) under References Cited.
Psychidae (bagworm moths)
Bagworm cases
containing the female moth were boiled by the Seri and the tea drunk to
"make one thin" (Felger and Moser 1985). The bagworm was
called cacaojc .
Pyralidae (snout moths, grass moths)
Laniifera cyclades Druce, larva
Larvae of Laniifera
cyclades, known as "worm of the nopal cactus" or "gusano
sel nopal," are eaten fried or in tacos. Its flavor is similar to
french fries and is delicious (Conconi 1982a: 122). Conconi et al (1984a)
reported a crude protein content of 45.8%; for data on protein digestibility,
see Conconi et al (1981a, Table 7); for data on proximate analysis
and caloric content, see Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990, Table
9). The larvae are found during a
4-month period, February-May, and there are 20-30 larvae per leaf (Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino 1989: 27). See also
Barrera and Bassols (1953) in the Introduction.
Saturniidae (giant silk moths)
Arsenura armida Cramer, larva
Hylesia frigida Hubner, larva
Hylesia sp., larva
Latebraria amphipyroides Guenee, larva
Conconi et al (1984a)
reported a crude protein content of 41.9% and a protein chemical value of 45% for
the larva of Hylesia frigida (called "mariposadel madroño"). The larvae of A. armida and L.
amphipyroides are known as cuecla or cuetla (Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino 1989: 28-29, 89), and Del Barco is cited that, "The Indians
love this food because it is nutritious and has a buttery and smooth
taste." The authors state that
children sometimes eat the larvae alive "since they have a sweet
flavor." They are sold in the
markets of Oaxaca, Veracruz, Puebla and Tlaxcala. For proximate analyses and caloric content of all three species,
see Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990) in the Introduction and Table
9.
Sphingidae (hawk-moths, sphinx moths)
Hyles lineata (author?), larva
Felger and Moser (1985: 39-40,
113, 350) reported that, like the Papago, the Seri of northwestern Mexico
gathered and ate the caterpillars (hehe icam) or "plant's live
thing") of the white-lined sphinx moth, Hyles lineata, which
feeds more often on hamip caacol than on other plants. According to the
authors: "The head was twisted off, the viscera stripped out with the
fingers, and the "skin" (actually mostly muscle or meat) cooked in oil in pottery vessels . The cooked
caterpillars were often dried and stored in covered vessels.
The only other report
of sphingid larvae being eaten in Mexico is by Hunn (1977; see under References
Cited).
Family uncertain
Clavigero (1786; Lake
and Gray translation 1937: 59) mentioned two caterpillars:
These poor Indians find sustenance
likewise from two kinds of grayish worms, which are long and as thick as the
little finger and which are found on certain plants after the rains. In order
to eat them, they catch them one by one by the head with their two fingers, and
with the other two they continue pressing them from the head as far as the
other extremity, in order to empty their digestive system. Afterward they roast
them and make a long string of those which they wish to keep for further use.
Caterpillars are
mentioned as a food of the Paipai, a Yuman-speaking people who live about 80
miles east-southeast of Ensenada, Baja, California (Joel 1976).
Megaloptera
Corydalidae (dobsonflies, fishflies)
See "water
bug" complex under Hunn (1977) in References Cited).
Odonata
Aeschnidae ( darners )
Anax sp., nymph , adult
Conconi and Bourges (1977)
reported that the nymph of a species of Anax (family Aeschnidae) is
eaten. The Aeschnidae are part of the superfamily Anisoptera. Hunn (1977
) reported that both dragonfly larvae (Anisoptera) and damsel fly larvae
(superfamily Zygoptera) are consumed in the central highlands of Chiapas. See Ramos-Eloduy and Pino (1990)
in the Introduction and Table 9 for proximate analysis and caloric content of Anax.
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Arphia fallax Sauss., nymph, adult
Boopedon flaviventris Bruner, nymph, adult
Boopedon sp. af. flaviventris Bruner, nymph, adult
Encoptolophus herbaceous Sauss., nymph, adult
Melanoplus femurrubrum DeGeer, nymph, adult
Me1anoplus mexicanus Sauss., nymph, adult
Melanoplus sp., nymph, adult
Ochrotettix cer. salinus Burm., nymph, adult
Osmilia flavolineata DeGeer, nymph, adult
Plectrotettra nobilis Walk., nymph, adult
Schistocerca paranensis Burm., nymph, adult
Schistocerca sp., nymph, adult
Spharagemon aequale Say, nymph, adult
Sphenarium histrio Gerst., nymph, adult
Sphenarium magnum Marquez, nymph, adult
Sphenarium purpurascens Charp., nymph, adult
Sphenarium spp., nymphs, adults
Trimerotropis sp., nymph, adult
Tropinotus mexicanus Brunner, nymph, adult
About 20 species of
grasshoppers and locusts are known as food in Mexico. They are sold widely in
the village markets, species of the genus Sphenarium being particularly
important (de Conconi, pers. comm. 1986). As sold, they have frequently been
mixed with onion, garlic and chili powder, then boiled (during which they turn
to a pinkish-brown color) and dried in the sun or fried. According to Conconi
(l984), grasshoppers generally assume the taste of the condiment with
which they are cooked, such as chili piquin or lemon in garlic. Nets are often
used to collect them.
Steininger and Van de
Velde (1935) [1971 reprint: 11] report that in San Pablo, a typical Zapotecan
Indian village in southwestern Mexico, toasted grasshoppers are an article of
diet:
[Collecting] is generally done by
the women who go out at dusk and pick them from the grass and the bushes and
place them in a little jar which they have brought for the purpose. The
grasshoppers are kept in these jars over night, during which time they purge
themselves of their acrid black juice. The following morning they are either
fried in lard or toasted with lemon juice and salt. Connoisseurs claim that,
when properly prepared, grasshoppers are quite succulent.
Felger and Moser (l985) cite
an earlier reference indicating that the Seri ate grasshoppers and they note
that the name of two small shrubs in the mallow family, Caatc ipapl (Abutilon
incanum and Horsfordia alata), means "what grasshoppers are
strung with," and likewise indicates that grasshoppers were eaten.
Clavigero (1786; Lake
and Wade translation 1937: 63) described great locust flights and said (p. 65):
Formerly the Californians were
accustomed to eat roasted and pulverized locusts frequently, after they had
removed the contents of the stomach. The good advice of the missionaries and
the experience acquired in 1722, in which a great epidemic attacked the Indians
because they ate so many locusts, diverted them, for the most part, from such
food. Nevertheless, some continued to eat them, since they were not averse to
taking advantage of what was so abundant when other foods are so scarce.
Studies on nutrient
content have been conducted by (see Introduction) Grimaldo et al (1957) (Table
2), Massieu et al (1959) (Table 4), Conconi and Bourges (1977) on Sphenarium
histrio (Table 5), Conconi and Pino (1979) on Trimerotropis
sp. (Table 6), Conconi et al {1981a) on S. histrio (Table
7), and Conconi et al (1982a) on Sphenarium purpuracens (Table
8). Massieu et al noted the high protein and niacin content of grasshoppers (Sphenarium)
compared to other foods. Conconi et al (1982a) reported protein chemical values
of 60% and 65%, respectively for S. histrio and S. purpurascens,
and Conconi et al (1984a) reported chemical values of 56% each
for Boopedon flaviventris, Melanoplus mexicanus and Sphenarium spp. Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990)
reported proximate analyses and caloric values for 12 species (Introduction and
Table 9).
Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1989:
1-13, 79-80) review parts of the Florentino Manuscript pertaining to grasshoppers (known as
"chapulines") and locusts ("langostas"), and state that 27
species are now recorded as eaten in Mexico (although the authors do not list
them). They note that 1 kilogram of
grasshoppers costs 12,000 pesos in Oaxaca and 18,000 pesos in Mexico City. Ten
grams cost about 1,200 pesos, and they are eaten in tacos. Special nets are used for commercial
collecting. To avoid a bitter taste,
they are held for a day to allow clearing of the digestive tract, then placed
in boiling water, then sun-dried.
Long (1993)
described a trip by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Gary Cunningham who
was invited to Mexico to recommend new pest management approaches which might
help quell grasshopper swarms centered in the Yucatan Peninsula and to the west
in the states of Tlaxcala and Puebla, and described as of "epidemic
proportions." The highly toxic
insecticide, methyl parathion, most of it applied by backpack sprayers, had
been the Mexican government's method of choice in combatting the outbreaks, but
the government was also studying alternatives including harvesting the insects
as a food source. While Cunningham was
in Puebla, an extension specialist from Mexico City was demonstrating
grasshopper recipes learned from natives in the nearby State of Oaxaca. Cunningham purchased a pound of freshly
prepared Sphenarium grasshoppers in a Puebla market for 4,000 pesos, or
about US $1.25. The recipe was simple and "complimented the insect's
hearty flavor." It is mentioned
that the natives gather grasshoppers in a sweep net and place them in water for
24 hours. After they are drained, they
are placed in boiling water for about 30 minutes, adding salt and garlic. Corn husks are added "to give them a
darker, more delicious color."
See also Callen
(1963), Clavijero (1786), Conconi (1984), Curran (1937) and Dunlap (1987) in
the Introduction, and Hunn (1977) under References Cited.
Blattidae (cockroaches)
See Hunn (1977,
medicinal use by Tzeltal-speaking Indians) under References Cited.
Gryllidae (crickets)
See Clavijero (1786)
in the Introduction.
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Hunn (1977)
reported that mole crickets are eaten in the central highlands of Chiapas.
Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers)
Romalea colorata S., nymph, adult
Romalea sp., nymph, adult
Taeniopoda sp., nymph, adult
"Locusts"
called "colaca-chapoli" mentioned in the Florentino Manuscript
probably belong to the genus Taeniopoda according to Ramos-Elorduy
and Pino (1989: 13). See also Hunn (1977, Taeniopoda not
eaten by Tzeltal-speaking Indians) under References Cited. Data on proximate analyses and caloric
content were reported by Ramos-Elorduy and Pino (1990,
Introduction and Table 9).
Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)
Microcentrum sp., nymph, adult
One of the
grasshoppers (called "Cacatecuilichtli") mentioned in the Florentino
Manuscript as edible is probably Microcentrum sp. (Ramos-Elorduy and
Pino 1989: 13-14). See also Hunn
(1977) under References Cited.
Trichoptera
Hydropsychidae (net-spinning caddiceflies)
Leptonema sp., larva
Miscellaneous
Insects
Gage (1721: 144)
stated (translation): "In the Indian markets, they sold, among other
things, 'long worms.'"
References Cited (An * denotes not seen in the original)
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Puebla.* (See under Megathymidae)
Ancona, H.L. 1931. Los Chilocuiles o gusanitos de la sal de Oaxaca. An.
Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Autón. Méx. 2: 265-277. (Cossidae)
Ancona, H.L. 1932. Los jumiles de Taxco (Gro.) Atizies taxcoensis spec.
nov. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Autón. Méx. 3: 149-162.
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Ancona, H.L. 1933a. El ahuautle de Texcoco. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac.
Autón. Méx. 4: 51-69.
(Corixidae)
Ancona, H.L. 1933b. Los jumiles de Cuautla. Euschistus zopilotensis Distant.
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Ancona, H.L. 1934. Los gusanitos del maguey. Aegiale (Acentrocneme)
hesperiaris Kirby. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Autón. Méx. 5:193-200. (Megathymidae)
Bachstez, M.; Aragón, A. 1942. Notes on Mexican drugs. II.
Characteristics and composition of the fatty oil from "gusanos de
maguey" (caterpillars of Acentrocneme hesperiaris). J. Am.
Pharm. Assoc., Sc. Ed., 31: 145-146.
(Megathymidae)
Bachstez, M.; Aragón, A. 1945. Notes on Mexican drugs, plants, and
foods. III. Ahuauhtli; the Mexican caviar. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc., Sc. Ed.,
34:170-172. (Corixidae)
Bachstez, M.; Deschamps, I. 1950. Notas sobre-drogas, plantas y
alimentos mexicanos. XI. Distribucion de los aminoácidos en proteínas de huevos
de insectos (ahuautle). Ciencia X (3-4): 81-83. (Corixidae)
Barber, H.S. 1928. Thomas Say's unrecorded journey in Mexico. Entomol.
News 39: 15-20. (Corixidae)
Barrera, A.; Bassols, I. 1953. Un ensayo sobre los conocimientos
entomologicos en el Mexico antiguo. Mem. del Congr. Cient. Mex. UNAM VII:
85-98.* (Introduction)
Bodenheimer, F.S. 1951. Insects as Human Food. The Hague: W. Junk, 352 pp. (A source of several references)
Callen, E.O. 1963. Diet as revealed by coprolites. In Science in
Archaeology (D. Brothwell, E. Higgs, eds.), pp. 186-194. Great Britain:
Thames and Hudson. (Introduction)
China, E. 1931. An interesting relationship between a crayfish and a
waterbug. Nat. Hist. Mag. London 1931: 57-62.* (Corixidae)
Clavigero, Francisco Javier. 1786. See under Lake and Gray (1937).
Clavijero, Francisco Javier. 1780. Storia Antica del Messico. I, II.
Bologne.* (Introduction; see Clavigero 1986 above)
Conconi, J.R.E. de. 1974. Los insectos como una fuente de proteinas en el futuro
(projecto). Reg. Sec. Educ. Publ. 1639/74.* (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Bourges R., H. 1977. Valor nutritivo de
ciertos insectos comestibles de Mexico y lista de algunos insectos comestibles
del mundo. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Autón. Méx. 48, Ser. Zool.,
(1): 165-186. (Introduction and
Table 5)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino, J.M. 1979. Insectos comestibles del Valle del
Mezquital y su valor nutritivo. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Autón. Méx., Ser.
Zool., 50 (1): 563-574.
(Introduction and Table 6)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino M, J.M. 1980a. Valor nutritivo de
algunos insectos comestibles de Mexico y su variación después de un tratamiento
con dos miméticos de la hormona juvenil. Folia Entomol. Mex. 43: 53
(Abstr.). (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino M, J.M. 1980b. Digestibilidad in
vitro de algunos insectos comestibles de México. Folia Entomol. Mex. 45:
116 (Abstr.). (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Machain Castell de Oro, V.A.; Pino Moreno, J. 1980.
Estudio
del valor nutritivo de Musca domestica. Folia Entomol. Mex. 45: 115-116
(Abstr.). (Muscidae)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino, J.M.; González, O. 1981a. Digestibilidad in
vitro de algunos insectos comestibles en Mexico. Folia Entomol. Mex. 49:
141-154. (Introduction and Table 7)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino Moreno, J.M.; Machain Castel de Oro, V. A.
1981b. Digestibilidad total y proteinas de las pupas de Musca domestica.
Folia Entomol. Mex. 48: 101 (Abstr.).
(Muscidae)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Bourges, H.; Pino Moreno, J.M. 1981c. Valor nutritivo y
calidad de la proteina de tres insectos comestibles de México. Folia
Entomol. Mex. 48: 101-102 (Abstr.).
(Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de. 1982a. Los insectos como fuente de proteinas en el futuro.
Edit. Limusa, 142 pp. (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de. 1982b. Los insectos comestibles de México presente y futuro. Rev.
Tecnol. Aliment. (Mex.) 17(6): 19-22. (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Bourges, H.; Pino Moreno, J. 1982a. Valor nutritivo y
calidad de la proteina de algunos insectos comestibles de Mexico. Folia
Entomol. Mex. 53: 118. (Introduction and Table 8)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Delage-Darchen, B.; Bourges, H.; Pino Moreno,
J.M. 1982b. Life cycle of Liometopum apiculatum and Liometopum
occidentale var. luctuosum (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with reference
to their nutritive value as food in worker and reproductive casts. Proc. 9th
Congr. Internat. Union Study Social Insects, Boulder, Colo., 2nd Suppl., p. 1
(Abstr.). (Formicidae)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Rincon V, F.; Bourges, H.; Pino Moreno, J.M.;
Alvarado, M.; Escamilla, E. 1982c. Hymenoptera Aculeata edible in Mexico.
Their nutritive value with emphasis in protein quantity and quality. Proc. 9th
Congr. Internat. Union Study Social Insects, Boulder, Colo., 2nd Suppl., p. 1
(Abstr.). (Vespidae)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Delage-Darchen, B.; Cuadriello Aguilar, J.I.;
Galindo Miranda, N.E.; Pino Moreno, J.M. 1983a. Observaciones sobre
la fundacion de las sociedades de Liometopum apiculatum M. XVIII
Congreso Nac. de Entomologia, Tapachula, Chiapas, Resumenes, pp. 55-56
(Abstr.). (Formicidae)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino Moreno, J.M.; Bourges, H. 1983b. Valor nutritivo y
calidad de la proteina de algunos insectes comestibles de Mexico. XVIII Congr.
Nac. Entomol. Resumenes, pp. 134-135 (Abstr.). (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pérez G., R.M.; Pino Moreno, J.M.; Muñoz, J.L.
1983c. Deteccion de minerales en algunos insectos comestibles de Mexico. XVIII
Congr. Nac. Entomol. Resumenes, pp. 135-136 (Abstr.). (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino Moreno, J.M.; Arcos, R.M. de los. 1983d. Los insectos
comestibles en Mexico un ensayo etnoentomologico. XVIII Congr. Nac. Entomol.
Resumenes, p. 150 (Abstr.).
(Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de. 1984. Los insectos como un recurso actual y potencial.
Seminario Sobre La Alimentacion En Mexico, pp. 127-139. Instituto de
Geografía México. (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino Moreno, J.M.; Mayaudon, C.M.; et al. 1984a. Protein content of
some edible insects in Mexico. J. Ethnobiol. 4(1): 61-72. (Introduction)
Conconi, J.R.E. de; Darchen, B.D.; Aguilar, J.I.C.; Miranda, N.G.;
Moreno, J.M.P. 1984b. Ciclo de vida y fundación de las sociedades de Liometopum
apiculatum M (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac.
Autón. Méx. 54 (1983), Ser. Zool., (l): 161-176. (Formicidae)
Constanso, M. 1911. Diary of M. Constanso. The Portola Expedition of 1769-1770.
Publ. Acad. Pacific Coast Hist. 2(2): 28-29. (Aphididae)
Conway, J.R. 1994. Honey ants. Amer. Entomologist 40(4):
229-234. (Hymenoptera)
Corelis, Angela. 1994. [Letters] Food Insects Newslet. 7(1): 3. (Megathymidae)
Cowan, F. 1865. Curious Facts in the History of Insects; Including
Spiders and Scorpions. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., pp. 160,
275-277.
Cowan cites (pp.
275-277) and quotes from numerous earlier authors on the harvest and food use
of the “hautle” (or Mexican caviar)(Corixidae, Notonectidae). Cowan also cites
(p. 160) Smith’s Nature and Art regarding
a singular species of ant, which carries
on its abdomen "a little bagful of
a sweet substance, of which the children
are very fond: the Mexicans suppose this
to be a kind of honey collected
by the insect; but Clavigero thinks it
rather its eggs." (Formicidae).
Cowen, R. 1992. Butterflies in their stomachs. Sci. News
141: . (Pieridae)
Cravioto, R.O.; Lockhart, E.E.; Anderson, R.K.; Miranda, F. deP.;
Harris, R.S. 1945. Composition of typical Mexican foods. J. Nutrition 29:
317-323. (Introduction)
Cravioto, R.O.; Massieu H. G.; Guzman G. J.; Calvo de la Torre, J.
1951. Composicion de alimentos mexicanos. Ciencia, Mexico, D.F.,
11(56): 129-155. (Introduction
and Mexico Table 1)
Curran, C.H. 1937. Insect lore of the Aztecs. Nat. Hist. (N.Y.) 39:
l96-203. (Introduction)
Curran, C.H. 1951. Insects in Your Life. New York: Sheridan House, pp. 278,
281, 284. (Introduction)
Eerde, E. 1980/1981. Butterflies in your stomach? R&D Mexico, Dec.
1980/Jan. 1981, pp. 6-8.
(Introduction)
Felger, R.S.; Moser, M.B. 1985. People of the Desert and Sea.
Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians. Tucson, Ariz.: Univ. Ariz. Press, pp. 39-40,
113, 350. (Xylocopidae, Formicidae,
Vespidae, Psychidae, Sphingidae, Acrididae)
Gage, T. 1721. Nouvelle Relation contenent les Voyages de Thomas Gage
dans la Nouvelle Espagne.... 2 vols. Amsterdam, I, p. 144. (Corixidae, Miscellaneous
Insects)
Grimaldo, R.; Suarez Soto, M. de L. Luz; Massieu, G.; Cravioto, R.O.
1957. Continedo en cistina y tirosina de algunos alimentos mexicanos. An.
Inst. Biol. Univ. Nac. Auton. Mex. 28: 1-10. (Introduction and Mexico
Table 2)
Hodge, W.H. 1949. Letters: Insects as food. Nat. Hist. (N.Y.),
Nov., p. 385. (Megathymidae)
Hunn, E.S. 1977. Tzeltal Folk Zoology. The Classification of
Discontinuities in Nature. New York: Academic Press, pp. 254-306.
Hunn defines hundreds
of terms applied to insects by the Tzeltal-speaking Indians of Tenejapa
in the central highlands of Chiapas. Many are considered edible, others not
edible. The "taxonomic" precision is amazing; the original work
should be consulted for the Tzeltal terms. Groups containing edible species are
as follows:
"Water bug"
complex (pp. 254-255): Aquatic larvae of the orders Odonata, Neuroptera,
and Diptera and nymphs and adults of aquatic Hemiptera and Coleoptera comprise
the complex. According to Hunn, none of the included taxa are considered
inedible, and several are the object of collecting trips during the low-water
season. Damselfly larvae (superfamily Zygoptera) and dragonfly larvae
(superfamily Anisoptera) are collected as food, the latter by turning stones at
the water's edge. Hellgrammites (larval Corydalidae) are collected, and are
common beneath streamside stones. Nymphs and adults of giant water bugs
(Belostomatidae) and creeping water bugs (Naucoridae) are also collected as
food by searching under streamside stones.
Ant complex (pp. 259-263):
[Don't have pp. 262-263, which includes Atta ants, and should be
checked before completing this section.]
Butterfly-moth
complex (pp. 280-288): Baked cicadas are fed to children who talk too
much in order to cure them of this trait; Hunn says this use is sympathetic,
the insect and the child both making loud and incessant noise.
Grasshopper complex
(pp. 288-294): This corresponds closely to the order Orthoptera, most of
the included categories being clearly defined and scientifically relevant. Only
the cockroaches are excluded. The cultural significance of this group as food
and to a lesser extent as pests may explain the detail in classification.
Wingless nymphal stages of several taxa are recognized as such. Small, medium
and large short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae), including the spur-throated
grasshoppers (Cyrtacanthacridinae) are edible. The lubber grasshoppers
(Acrididae: Romaleinae: Taeniopoda) are fairly common in season but are
not eaten. Meadow grasshoppers (Tettigoniidae: Copiphorinae), brush and round-headed
katydids (Phaeneropterinae), and camel crickets (Decticinae) are all considered
edible. Praying mantids and walking sticks are not eaten, but mole crickets
(Gryllotalpidae) are captured and eaten.
Cockroach complex (pp.
294-295): Cockroaches (Blattidae) are not normally eaten, but Blatella
germanica and Pseudomops sp. are roasted, ground to powder, and
drunk with water as a cure for "whooping cough." Insecticides are now
usually used for roach control, rather than formerly used methods.
Beetle-bug
complex (pp. 295-299): Rhinoceros beetles (Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae) are
considered edible, while dung beetles (Scarabaeinae), because of their
association with dung, are not considered edible. They are not to be killed,
however, because their scavenging role is considered essential. June beetles
(Melolonthinae) and shining leaf beetles (Rutelinae) are considered edible, as
are long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae: Prioninae).
Weevil complex (pp.
299-303): Antlion larvae (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae) are included in
this complex, and, although not eaten, women desiring larger breasts collect
these and induce them to bite their nipples. This is to insure that in a few
years their breasts will enlarge and be similar to the round abdomens of these
larvae. An insect considered edible is the "true tree critter," a
large (7.5 cm) larva with yellow bands (which may prove to be the larva of the
giant noctuid moth, Thysania agrippina, according to Hunn). It is found
on a variety of trees. The larvae are found by searching for the hole made when
a larva enters the wood. A machete is used to cut through to the larva. Other
wood-boring larvae are edible if white, inedible if black. Large white
grubs (scarab beetle larvae), which damage the roots of cultivated plants are
considered inedible; "If eaten, they make a fierce man stupid."
Caterpillar complex
(pp. 303-306): This includes lepidopterous larvae except the wood-boring
types and also includes a few fly larvae. The classification of larval
Lepidoptera is much more detailed than that of adult Lepidoptera, mainly
because of their pest importance. Only one type (tsac'), the large
larvae of a sphinx moth, is eaten, but it is considered a delicacy. Trips to
lower areas to the north are required to collect the larvae. They are large,
dark, hairless, swarming caterpillars which protrude a hornlike osmaterium when
disturbed.
Joel, Judith. 1976. Some Paipai accounts of food gathering. J. Calif.
Anthropol. 3(1): 59-71.
(Lepidoptera: Family uncertain)
Kellog, C.R. 1945. Beekeeping in Mexican villages. Am. Bee J. 85(10):
356-357. (Apidae)
Kevan, P.G.; Bye, R.A. 1991. The natural history, sociobiology, and ethnology of Eucheira
socialis Westwood (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), a unique and little-known
butterfly from Mexico. The Entomologist 110(4): 146-165. (Pieridae)
Kirkaldy, G.W. 1898. An economic use for waterbugs. Ent. Month. Mag. 2nd
Ser., IX (Vol. XXXIV): 173-175.
(Corixidae)
Kunckell de Herculais. 1885-1886. Observaciones
acerca de la hormiga cae de miel Myrmecocystus melliger Wesmael. La
Naturaleza Vol. VII, pp. 1-14.
(Formicidae) [Awaiting translation from Spanish.]
Lake, S.E.; Gray, A.A. 1937. The History of [Lower] California by Don Francisco
Javier Clavigero, S.J. Transl. from the Italian and edited. Stanford
University, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 413 pp. (Introduction).
Langstroth; Leidy. 1854. [No title.] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 6:
71-72. (Formicidae)
Llave, P. de. 1832. Registro Trimestre o Collection de Memorias de Historia.
Literatura, Ciencias y Artes, Mexico.*
(Formicidae)
Long, K. 1993. Locust and grasshopper populations plague Mexico. Inside
APHIS 13(3): 10-11. (Acrididae)
Massieu, H.G.; Trigo, M; Cravioto, R.O.; Calvo de la T., J. 1950. Sobre la applicación
del Metodo de Thomas a la dosificación de tirosina en algunos alimentos
Mexicanos. Ciencia e Investigación (Argentina) 6: 424-428. (Introduction)
Massieu, G.H.; Guzmán, J. Cravioto, R.O.; Calvo, J. 1958. Nutritive value of
some primitive Mexican foods. J. Am. Dietetic Assoc. 27: 212-214. (Introduction)
Massieu, G.H.; Cravioto, R.O.; Guzmán, J.; Olivera, H. 1959. Contribucion
adicional al estudio de la composicion de alimentos mexicanos. Ciencia Mex. XIX
(4-5): 53-66. (Introduction)
Mayer, Brantz. 1844. Mexico as it was and as it is. New York, p. 218.*
(Hemiptera: Corixidae)
Mitsuhashi, J. 1996. [Letters) Food
Insects Newslet. 9(2): 10.
(Introduction)
Packard, A.S. 1885. Edible Mexican insects. Am. Nat. 19: 893.
(Formicidae, Noctuidae)
Pennington, C.W. 1969. The Tepehuan of Chihuahua. Their Material Culture. Salt
Lake City: Univ. Utah Press, 413 pp. (pp. 143, 309-310)
The
author reports studies on the Tepehuan of southern Chihuahua during the 1960's.
Insect foods included an ant (p. 143): "The davurai, or daburi,
is a yellow insect that builds an underground nest in the monte. The
nest is opened with a stick, and smoke is used to drive away the larger
insects. Smaller ones are removed from the hive and toasted on coals. The davurai
is sought throughout the year."
Also: "Upland and canyon Tepehuan esteem a grub (kakeduni)
taken from a cocoon that is found on Arbutus arizonica, A. glandulosa, and
A. xalapensis; this grub is added to the corn dish yorika." Honey from honey bees (including wild Apis
mellifera), bumble bees (Bombus formosus), and a wasp (Polybia
diguetana) is collected by the Tepehuan, but no mention is made regarding
consumption of the bee brood. Pennington states (p. 309) that, "Not one
Tepehuan would admit ever to have eaten a fly, locust, grasshopper, corn worm,
tadpole, toad, or lizard - all of which are certainly not ignored as food
by the Tarahumar," their immediate neighbors to the north.
Portevin, G. 1933. Les Insectes Comestibles. La Terre et la Vie. 1933: 336-340.*
(Corixidae)
Ramos-Elorduy, J.; Pino M., J.M.
1989. Los insectos comestibles en el Mexico antiguo. Mexico,
D.F.: A.G.T. Editor, S.A., 108 pp. (Introduction and many orders and families)
Ramos-Elorduy, J. 1990. Edible insects: barbarism or solution to the hunger problem? In:
Ethnobiology: Implications and Applications (D.A. Posey and W.L. Overal,
organizers). Proc. 1st Internat. Congr. Ethnobiol. (Belém, 1988). Belém:
Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, 2 vols.
(Introduction)
Ramos-Elorduy, J.; Pino M., J.M.
1990. Caloric content of some edible insects of Mexico. Rev.
Soc. Quim. Mex. 34(2): 56-68. (Introduction and Table 9)
Robles, A.F.; Conconi, J.R.E. de; Pino
Moreno, J.M.; Sandoval Castro, M.E. 1983. Deteccion de
insectos comestibles en Milpa Alta, D.F. Congr. Nac. Entomol. Resumenes p. 151
(Abstr.). (Introduction)
Sahagun, F.B. de. 1557. "Original Codex (1557)." Biblioteca Nacional de Mexico,
Mexico, D.F.* (Introduction)
Sahagun, F.B. de. 1946. Historial general de las cosas de la Nueva Espana. Ed. Nueva Espana,
Mexico, Tomo II.* (Introduction)
Simmonds, P.L. 1885. The Animal Food Resources of Different Nations. London: E. and F.N.
Spon, pp. 353, 369. (Cerambycidae,
Formicidae)
Smith T. 1807. Wonders of Nature and Art. 12 vol. Philadelphia, XII, pp. 197-198.*
Smith (vide Bodenheimer 1951: 293-294) discussed as follows several insects eaten by the ancient Mexicans:
The Atelepitz
[Hydrophilidae], a marsh beetle, resembling in shape and size the flying
beetles, having four feet, and covered with a hard shell. The Atopinan [Dytiscidae]
is a marsh grasshopper of a dark colour and great size, 15 cm long and 5 cm
broad (!). The Ahuihuilla [Belostomatidae] is a worm inhabiting the
lakes of Mexico, 10 cm long, thick as a goose quill, tawny above and white
below; it stings with a tail, which is hard and poisonous. The Ocuiliztac [Ephydridae]
is a black marsh worm which becomes white on being roasted.
Starr, C.K. 1992. [Published communication] Food Insects Newslet. 5(3): 5. (Vespidae)
Steininger, G.R.; Van de Velde, P. 1935
[1971 reprint]. Three Dollars a Year. Detroit: Blaine
Ethridge--Books, p. 11.
(Acrididae)
Theodorides, J. 1949. Les Coleopteres comestibles. Natur. Belge 30: 126-137.
(Cicindelidae)
Torre-Bueno, J.R. de la. 1942. A bibliographic note on aquatic Hemiptera used as food in Mexico. Bull.
Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 37(5): 168-169. (Corixidae)
Wetherill, C.M. 1854. Chemical investigation of the Mexican honey ant. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia 6: 111-113.
(Formicidae)
Wheeler, W.M. 1908. Honey ants, with a revision of the American Myrmecocysti. Bull. Am.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 24: 345-397.
(Formicidae)
Chapter 3 of The Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource:
A Bibliographic Account in Progress, by Gene R. DeFoliart, posted on website
July, 2002.
Aguilar-Miranda, E.D.; Lopez, M.G.; Escamilla-Santana, C.; Barba de la
Rosa. 2002. Characteristics of maize flour tortilla supplemented with ground Tenebrio
molitor larvae. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50: 192-195.
Ramos-Elorduy, J. 1997. Insects: a sustainable source of food? In M.G.
Paoletti, S.G.F. Bukkens (Eds.), Special Issue: Minilivestock. Ecol. Food
Nutr. 36(2-4): 247-276.
The Food Insects Newsletter 10(1): 5-6 (1997)
lists 19 references, dated from 1990 to 1997, authored or co-authored by J.
Ramos-Elorduy. None of these are included above under our References Cited.
Pp. 2, 19. To what families of Coleoptera do Paxillus and Rhantus
belong?
Pp. 3, 26. To what family of Hemiptera does Brachymona belong?
Pp. 28, 46. Kunckell D'Hercules (1885-1886), vol. VII, pp. 1-14 ,
awaiting translation
P. 40. Leptonema sp. is reported in which reference?
P. 44. Cowen, R. (1992), pagination?
P. 45. Hunn (1977), copy of pages 262-263 of Ant complex needed.