Chapter 11

 

                                               SOUTHERN AFRICA: OVERVIEW

 

 

            The Southern Africa region as treated here includes Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and the islands of Madagascar and Mauritius.  A wide variety of insects are eaten including at least 83 species belonging to at least 72 genera, 35 families and 9 orders (see Regional Taxonomic Inventory).   The specific identity is known for only 62 of the species, while the generic identity is known for another 17, the family identity for another 7 and only the order for one species.  The total, however, is undoubtedly much higher, as almost nothing is known about the specific identity of insects consumed in Botswana, Mozambique and Namibia, while the totals of 35, 36 and 21 recorded (at least to genus) from South Africa, Zimbabwe and Madagascar, respectively, are obviously far from complete.  In Zimbabwe, for example, Gelfand (1971) and Chavunduka (1975) record the specific identity of three species of caterpillars (and a fourth species to genus), but identify at least six additional species on the basis of vernacular names and host plants utilized.

 

Regional Taxonomic Inventory (as of about 1996)

 

            Taxa and stages consumed                                                                                  Countries

 

COLEOPTERA (beetles)

                        Beetles, beetle grubs                                                                                 Pan-regional

 

            Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)

                        Sternocera funebris (author?), adult                                                            Zimbabwe

                        Sternocera orissa Buquet, adult                                                   S. Africa, Zimbabwe

 

            Carabidae (ground beetles)

                        Scarites sp., larva                                                                                     Madagascar

                        Tricholespis sp., larva                                                                               Madagascar

 

            Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

                        Cerambycid sp., larva                                                                     Mauritius, S. Africa

                        Stenodontes downesi Hope, larva                                           Mozambique, S. Africa

                        Plocoederus frenatus (author?), larva                                                            S. Africa

 

            Cicindelidae (tiger beetles)

                        Proagsternus sp., larva                                                                            Madagascar

 

            Curculionidae (snout beetles, weevils)

                        Eugnoristus monachus Ol., larva                                                             Madagascar

                        Polycleis equestris Boheman, adult                                                                S. Africa

                        Polycleis plumbeus Guerin, adult                                                                   S. Africa

                        Rhina sp., larva                                                                                         Madagascar

                        Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Fabr.), larva                                                         S. Africa

                        Rhynchophorus sp.                                             Madagascar, Mozambique, S. Africa

 

 

            Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)

                        Cybister hova Fairm., adult                                                                      Madagascar

 

            Elateridae (click beetles)

                        Click beetles                                                                                                 Botswana

 

            Lucanidae (stag beetles)

                        Cladognathus serricornis (author?), larva                                                Madagascar

 

            Passalidae (bess beetles)

                        Palmicolous passalid larvae                                                                        Madagascar

 

            Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

                        Lepidiota anatina (author?), adult                                                               Zimbabwe

                        Lepidiota masnona (author?), adult                                                             Zimbabwe

                        Lepidiota nitidicollis (author?), adult                                                           Zimbabwe

                        Oryctes boas Fabr., larva, occasionally adult                                                  S. Africa

                        Oryctes monoceros Ol., larva, occasionally adult                                            S. Africa

                        Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva, occasionally adult                                      S. Africa

 

DIPTERA (true flies)

 

                        Swarms of flies                                                                                             Botswana

 

            Culicidae (mosquitoes)

                        Mosquitoes                                                                                                   Botswana

 

HEMIPTERA (true bugs)

 

            Nepidae (waterscorpions)

                        Nepa sp., adult                                                                                         Madagascar

 

            Pentatomidae (stink bugs)

                        Euchosternum delegorguei (Spinola), adult                                 S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Pentascelis remipes (author?), adult                                                            Zimbabwe

                        Pentascelis wahlbergi (author?), adult                                                        Zimbabwe

 

HOMOPTERA (cicadas, etc.)

 

            Cicadidae (cicadas)

                        Lobo leopardina (author?)                                                                          Zimbabwe

                        Phremnia rubra Signoret, "sugar"                                                             Madagascar

 

            Fulgoridae (planthoppers)

                        Pyrops madagascariensis Fabr.                                                               Madagascar

 

            Psyllidae (psyllids)

                        Psylla sp., sweet secretion                                                                             S. Africa

 

HYMENOPTERA (bees, ants wasps)

 

            Apidae (bees)

                        Trigona spp., larvae                                                                                    Zimbabwe

                        Bee larvae/pupae                                                         Botswana, S. Africa, Zimbabwe

 

            Eumenidae (mason and potter wasps)

                        Mason wasp                                                                                                  Botswana

 

            Formicidae (ants)

                        Carebara vidua Sm., winged adult                                              S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Ants                                                                                               Botswana, Namibia

 

            Vespidae (wasps, hornets)

                        Wasp larvae                                                                             Botswana, Madagascar

 

ISOPTERA (termites)

                        Termites, "white ants", "flying ants"                                                  Botswana, Namibia

                                                                                                                            S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Termite soldier                                                                              S. Africa, Zimbabwe

 

            Hodotermitidae

                        Hodotermes sp., nymph                                                                                 S. Africa

                        Microhodotermes viator (Latr.)                                                                    S. Africa

 

            Termitidae

                        Macrotermes falciger Gerstacker, winged adult,                                         Zimbabwe

                             soldier, queen

                        Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland)                                                            Zimbabwe

                        Macrotermes swaziae Fuller, winged adult                                                     S. Africa

                        Odontotermes badius (Haviland), winged adult                                              S. Africa

                        Termes capensis DeGeer, winged adult                                                          S. Africa

 

LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies, moths)

                        Caterpillars                                                                                               Pan-regional

 

            Lasiocampidae (eggar moths, lappets)

                        Bombycomorpha pallida Distant, larva                                                          S. Africa

                        Borocera madagascariensis Boisduval, pupa                                           Madagascar

                        Borocera sp., larva                                                                                    Madagascar

                        Gonometa postica Walker, pupa                                                                   S. Africa

                        Libethra cajani Vinson, pupa                                                                   Madagascar

                        Rombyx radama Coquillet, pupa                                                              Madagascar

                        Lasiocampid larva                                                                                        Zimbabwe

 

            Limacodidae (slug caterpillars)

                        Limacodid larva                                                                                           Zimbabwe

 

            Notodontidae (prominents)

                        Anaphe panda (Boisdv), larva                                                                      Zimbabwe

 

            Psychidae (bagworm moths)

                        Debarrea malagassa Heylaerts, pupa                                                       Madagascar

 

            Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)

                        Antherina suraka (author?), larva                                                             Madagascar

                        Bunaea alcinoe (Stoll), larva                                                        S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Bunaea sp., larva                                                                                         Zimbabwe

                        Cirina forda (Westwood), larva                                                  S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Gonimbrasia belina Westwood, larva                        Botswana, S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Gonimbrasia zambesina Walker, larva                                                          S. Africa

                        Goodia kuntzei Dewitz, larva                                                                       Zimbabwe

                        Gynanisa maia (Klug), larva                                                                          S. Africa

                        Gynanisa sp., larva                                                                                      Zimbabwe

                        Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva                                                 S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Imbrasia ertli Rebel, larva                                                                           Zimbabwe

                        Lobobunaea sp., larva                                                                                 Zimbabwe

                        Melanocera menippe (author?), larva                                                            S. Africa

                        Microgone cana (author?), larva                                                                     S. Africa

                        Microgone sp., larva                                                                                    Zimbabwe

                        Pseudobunaea sp., larva                                                                              Zimbabwe

                        Tagoropsis sp., pupa                                                                                 Madagascar

                        Urota sinope Westwood, larva                                                                      S. Africa

 

            Sphingidae (sphinx or hawk moths)

                        Agrius convolvuli (Linn.), larva                                                   S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                        Sphinx moth pupa, adult                                                                            Madagascar

 

            Family uncertain

                        Coenostegia diegoi (Mab.), pupa                                                             Madagascar

 

ODONATA (dragonflies)

 

            Libellulidae (common skimmers)

                        Libellulid nymphs                                                                                       Madagascar

 

ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers, locusts, etc.)

 

            Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)

                        Acanthacris ruficornis (Fabr.)                                                                    Zimbabwe

                        Acrida bicolor (Thunberg)                                                                           Zimbabwe

                        Cyathosternum spp.                                                                                   Zimbabwe

                        Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata (Serville),                                 S. Africa, Zimbabwe

                             nymph, adult

                        Cyrtacanthacris sp.                                                                                  Madagascar

                        Locusta migratoides (author?), adult                                                           Zimbabwe

                        Locusta migratoria (Linn.), adult                                                                Zimbabwe

                        Locusta migratoria capito Saussure                                                        Madagascar

                        Locusta sp., adult                                                                      Madagascar, S. Africa

                        Locusta tartarica                                                                                        Botswana

                        Locustana pardalina (Walker), adult                                                             S. Africa

                        Ornithacris cyanea (Stoll), adult                                                                 Zimbabwe

                        Schistocerca sp., adult                                                                                   S. Africa

                        Truxaloides constrictus (Schaum)                                                              Zimbabwe

                        Locusts, grasshoppers                                                                               Pan-regional

 

            Gryllidae (crickets)

                        Acheta sp.                                                                                                   Zimbabwe

                        Brachytrupes membranaceus (Drury), adult                           Madagascar, Zimbabwe

                        Gryllus sp.                                                                                                     S. Africa

                        Crickets                                                                                                        Botswana

 

            Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)

                        Gryllotalpa africana (author?)                                                                    Zimbabwe

 

            Pyrgomorphidae

                        Zonocerus elegans (Thunberg), nymph, adult                                                 S. Africa

 

            Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers, katydids)

                        Ruspolia differens (= nitidulus) (authors?)                                                 Zimbabwe

 

 

            Quin (1959) reported the protein and calorie content of 11 insect species used as relishes by the Pedi in South Africa, and concluded that the loss of their traditional foods, including insects, was largely responsible for the problems of malnutrition among these people.  Throughout southern Africa  the insects are prepared in a variety of ways but most often as relishes for use with the basic cereal porridge.  The insects add flavor and valuable nutrients.  Quin reported that the insect relishes used by the Pedi ranged from popular to extremely popular and that many were preferred to meat (Chapter 12, Table 2).  He described the flavor of different species as being salty-nutty, fruity-meat, meaty vegetable, fatty like marrow, etc.  This enthusiasm for insect cuisine is not limited to the Pedi.  For example, Chavunduka (1975) in Zimbabwe states of the sand cricket, Brachytrupes membranaceus, "When well-prepared it is considered a delicacy, for it turns an ordinary meal into a dinner."  Some African insects are quite acceptable to the modern Western palate.   R.J. Phelps, in Zimbabwe, noted (pers. communication to the author, 1987) that "many people of European background eat termites here, although not in the quantities that the local people do."

            Many of the early records showing the enthusiasm of native populations for their insect foods pertain to locusts and are quite dramatic, probably because locust swarms are always on such a grand scale that even Western observors could hardly fail to notice what was happening.  Kunckel d'Hercules tells of how, in 1892, King Kuma of Togoland had to forbid the locust hunt as it caused the natives to neglect their fields.  Le Vaillant's statement (1782) is typical of many early accounts from S. Africa:  "Joy showed itself suddenly on all faces when a cloud of advancing locusts was sighted, composed of millions of these insects."  Le Vaillant mentions that his men "boasted so much about the excellence of this manna," that he decided to try them for himself.  In Madagascar,  a battle between two tribes was interrupted by the sudden appearance of a locust swarm.  Fighting ceased immediately as both sides became occupied with collecting the locusts. Appreciation of insect foods was not limited to the general populace, but extended to royalty.  Camboué tells us (1886) that in Madagascar insects were found even at the royal table in Tananariva.  "The late queen Ranavalona II kept, in addition to her hunters and fishermen, some women who merely scoured the fields to collect locusts." 

            Native populations not only liked their locusts, the insects were good for them nutritionally.  In S. Africa, Sparrman (1787), Moffat (1865) and Stowe (1905) all mentioned that when locusts abound the natives become fatter and in better condition than before.  Sparrman, and also Backhouse (1844), make a similar observation regarding the condition of the natives when termites are available.  Fleming (1853), in S. Africa, reported that the Korannas and Bushmen live for months on locusts which they grind into a meal, mix with fat and grease and bake in cakes.

            Western assessments of the flavor of African locusts are mixed, though generally favorable, as shown by the following from S. Africa.  Bryant (1949) reported that roasted locusts were "said by Europeans, who ventured to taste them, to possess the flavor of shrimps."  Moffat (1865) states that locusts are "on the whole, not bad food. . . When full-fed they are almost as good as shrimps."  Livingstone (1858) said of locusts, "Boiled, they are disagreeable; but when they are roasted I should much prefer locusts to shrimps, though I would avoid both if possible."  Locusts were said by Stowe (1905) to be "far from unpalatable," by Junod (1913) to be "simply nauseating," and by Le Vaillant (1931) to be not disagreeable, tasting like the yellow of a boiled egg.  Dornan (1925), in Botswana, said that locusts "are not at all bad eating."  Relative to another insect, we do not know the reaction of the guests, but we owe to DeCarey (1937 in Madagascar) the information that in 1894 a dish of Borocera pupae (a silk-spinning moth) prepared in a bechamel sauce (white sauce with cream), was served in an official meal in the French Residence in Tananarive.

               Only two species have received detailed nutritional evaluation in the region, the termite, Macrotermes falciger, in Zimbabwe (Phelps et al 1975), and the caterpillar, Gonimbrasia belina (known as the "mopanie worm"), in S. Africa (Dreyer 1968, Dreyer and Wehmeyer 1982).  The termite was found to be very high in energy, 761 kcal/100 g on an ash-free basis, but of only medium protein value (a PER of 1.7 for lightly fried termites compared to 3.5 for fish and 1.1 for maize).  The frying, however, may have resulted in some loss of lysine, as Moyo had earlier reported M. falciger to be a rich source of this amino acid and thus a good supplement to the traditional maize in the diet.  The amino acid composition of dried mopanie worms was reported by Dreyer to be relatively complete with high proportions of lysine and tryptophan (which is also limiting in maize protein) and of methionine which is limiting in legume seed proteins.  Dreyer and Wehmeyer concluded that, despite protein digestibility lower than that of most proteins of animal origin, "the consumption of mopanie caterpillars can to a substantial degree supplement the predominantly cereal diet with many of the protective nutrients."

            In Zimbabwe, according to Gelfand (1971), insects such as the ants, termites and crickets are usually collected by the women and children, and according to Wilson (1990) they are frequently eaten opportunistically, especially by the children.  Wilson stresses the importance of the high fat content of many of the species, as people living on a predominantly millet diet take in even less fat than those living predominantly on maize.  In the opinion of Chavunduka (1975), insect foods have averted many potential cases of kwashiorkor in the rural areas of Zimbabwe, and he recommended that their use, as the cheapest source of animal protein, should be encouraged.

            In S. Africa, some black communities derive 80 per cent of their protein from insects (Ferreira 1991), yet Cunningham and Peiser (1991), authors of the Primary Health Care Booklet written primarily for teachers and health care workers, decry the fact that knowledge of traditional foods is being lost because it is rarely taught in the schools.  And Cunningham (1992) notes that there is an increasingly widespread social stigma toward gathering of wild food resources, including insects, as opposed to buying food from stores.  This stigma also exacts an ecological price, in that it removes the incentive for conserving wild fruit-bearing trees when clearing fields.  These trees are the major woody plant cover outside of conservation areas and the source of certain edible insect larvae.   Similarly, in Zimbabwe, Wilson mentions that a small but increasing number of people are refusing to eat caterpillars because they are food for 'primitives,' although this is not yet widespread in rural areas and has not yet had an impact on the urban marketing of caterpillars.  Quin discussed at length how the coming of 'civilization' wreaked economic and nutritional havoc among the Pedi in S. Africa.

            Edible insects are of significant economic importance in the region. Quin stated that the Pedi of S. Africa, when given a choice, prefer the mopanie worm to fresh beef, and when available these caterpillars seriously affect the sale of beef. There are processing plants for mopanie caterpillars in Botswana (Brandon 1987) and S. Africa (Dreyer and Wehmeyer 1982), and The South African Bureau of Standards estimated annual sales of the caterpillars, through agricultural cooperative markets alone, at about 40,000 bags, each containing 40 kg of traditionally prepared, dried caterpillars.  According to Schaad (pers. comm. 1987), dried mopanie caterpillars are exported by the tons from Botswana to Zambia.  Ferreira notes that the mopanie caterpillar is being used so extensively as a source of food and income that S. Africans may be eating it into extinction.  The S. African government is now interested in supporting research aimed at developing methods of 'farming' the caterpillars, and mopanie conservation is considered an important factor in helping to deter environmental degradation.

            The mopanie caterpillar is also a major food item in Zimbabwe, where its price is similar to that of fresh beef (Wilson 1990). Another saturniid caterpillar, Cirina forda, is also found widely in rural and urban markets (McGregor 1991), and Chavunduka (1975) noted that some rural families in Zimbabwe make a fairly good living from selling caterpillars.  Wilson (1989) notes that there is a long history of regional international trade in caterpillars, and that a number of large industrial concerns now deal in dried and tinned caterpillars. As in S. Africa, however, there is growing concern in Zimbabwe about the diminishing caterpillar numbers as the result of ecological changes.  Wilson believes that heavy exploitation by people may be a contributing factor to the decline.   

            As insects dependent on woodland, such as most caterpillars, decline in dietary importance, insects not dependent on woodland are increasingly important.  Of the four species now most widely marketed in Zimbabwe, two belong to the latter category, the cricket Brachytrupes membranaceus and the katydid Ruspolia differens (McGregor 1991).  Also, termites, both alates and soldiers, are still widely marketed, and they can be an important source of income.

            Locusts were formerly of great economic importance in the region.  Osborn (1924) stated, for example: "All forward looking housewives in Madagascar have a goodly supply of dried locusts on hand.  They are to be had in the great public markets, whither they are carried in hundreds of huge shallow baskets."  They were particularly important items of commerce following invasions by swarms.  In 1935, to take advantage of this, the Madagascar government instituted a special high-speed tariff on locusts shipped by rail; they were taxed at the same rate as fish and game (DeCary 1937).  A variety of other insects have been marketed in Madagascar, including weevil larvae (Curculionidae), silkworm pupae (Lasiocampidae) and pupae of bagworm moths (Psychidae).

             As already mentioned, the availability of some edible insect species is decreasing in the region because of ecological factors.  In Zimbabwe, this results from bush clearance for settlement and agriculture, and the consequent disappearance of many indigenous trees and grasses upon which the insects feed (Chavunduka 1975).  Insecticides also have had an adverse effect on the insect populations.  Ecological deterioration in the form of vegetation and top-soil destruction in S. Africa, along with the loss of locust invasions from the north (because of international locust control programs), reduced edible insects to a relatively minor role in the Pedi dietary (Quin 1959).  The insecticide-based locust control programs have also had an effect in Zimbabwe.  Environmental concerns regarding the use of pesticides for locust control have resulted in a recent upsurge of interest in S. Africa in harvesting the insects as food and/or animal feed as an alternative procedure (Ledger 1987). 

            The migratory locusts which have been of such historical importance as a food source in Africa do indeed pose a huge problem.  As pointed out by Quin in S. Africa, Chavunduka, Wilson in Zimbabwe and others, international locust control programs have greatly diminished the availability of locusts as food. But, as is well-known, the locusts are equally historic as destructive pests of cultivated crops and other vegetation.  Depending on conditions, locust behavior can change from "solitary" (like a grasshopper) to "gregarious," and it is the resulting concentration of locusts into migratory nymphal bands and adult swarms in "outbreak areas" that makes them dangerous, the outbreak areas being the permanent breeding grounds from which plagues originate.   The ratio of plague, or invasion, area to outbreak area can be very high.  For example, the outbreak areas for Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata total less than 2000 sq. miles in continental Africa, but the ratio of the plague area to outbreak area is about 1500 to 1 (Gunn 1960).  For Locustana pardalina the ratio is much lower, outbreak areas occurring within 130,000 sq. miles, while the plague area is about 330,000 sq. miles.

            The four major locust species in Africa are Schistocerca gregaria (the desert locust),  Locusta migratoria migratorioides (the African migratory locust),  Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata, (the red locust) and Locustana pardalina (the brown locust).  Only the latter three are important in southern Africa.  Schistocerca g. gregaria, the dreaded scourge of the north, is represented by another subspecies, S. g. flaviventris (Burmeister), in western S. Africa, Namibia and southern Angola. Although flaviventris swarms periodically, it becomes a pest of only relatively minor importance (Scholtz and Holm 1985).

            The African migratory locust is widely reported as food across southern, central and eastern Africa.  Scholtz and Holm (1985) state: "Its main outbreak area is the middle Niger flood plain in West Africa.  Swarms from this source have led to devastating plagues which sporadically spread across the continent as far as South Africa. During their migration they breed en route and form new generations of swarms.  The species is preemanently present in the solitary phase in southern Africa."  The scattered solitary forms cause negligible damage, but swarms cause complete defoliation of crops (Hill 1983: 163).  The species is polyphagous but shows some preference for Gramineae, both wild and cultivated.  For control of either the hoppers or flying swarms, various insecticides are used.

             The red locust occurs throughout Africa south of the Sahara, including Madagascar and other off-shore islands