Chapter
12
REPUBLIC
OF SOUTH AFRICA
Taxa and life stages consumed
Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)
Sternocera orissa
Buquet, adult
Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)
Plocoederus frenatus (author?),
larva
Stenodontes (Mallodon) downesi (= downesii) Hope, larva
Curculionidae (snout beetles, weevils)
Polycleis equestris Boheman,
adult
Polycleis plumbeus
Guerin, adult
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis (Fabr.), larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) sp., larva
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Oryctes boas Fabr., larva,
occasionally the adult
Oryctes monoceros Ol.,
larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes owariensis
Beauv., larva, occasionally the adult
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Euchosternum delegorguei (= delagorguei) (Spinola), adult
Psyllidae (psyllids)
Psylla sp., sweet
secretion
Apidae (honey bees)
Apid spp., larvae
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua Sm., winged
adult
Hodotermes sp., “nymphs”
Microhodotermes viator
Latr., “flyer nymphs”
Macrotermes swaziae
Fuller, winged adult
Odontotermes (= Termes) badius (Haviland), winged adult
Termes capensis DeGeer, winged
adult
Lasiocampidae (eggar moths, lappets)
Bombycomorpha pallida
Distant, larva
Gonometa postica Walker,
pupa
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea alcinoe (= caffra, caffraria) Stoll, larva
Cirina forda (Westwood),
larva
Gonimbrasia (Conimbrasia, Nudaurelia) belina Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia zambesina
Walker, larva
Gynanisa maia (Klug), larva
Imbrasia epimethea
Drury, larva
Melanocera menippe
(author?), larva
Microgone cana (author?), larva
Urota sinope Westwood (= Cirina
similis), larva
Sphingidae (sphinx or hawk moths)
Agrius (= Herse) convolvuli (Linn.), larva
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville) (= Gryllus devastator), nymph, adult
Locusta sp., adult
Locustana paradalina
(Walker), adult
Schistocerca sp., adult
Gryllidae (crickets)
Gryllus (= Grillus) sp.
Zonocerus elegans
(Thunberg), nymph, adult
Quin (1959) reported the use of 13 species in five
orders in his excellent study of the food habits of the Pedi, one of the Sotho
tribes which in turn is one of several Bantu tribes. The food insect dishes of the Pedi are invariably served as a
relish with their cereal meal porridges.
In preparing the relishes, the insects are used fresh and whole except
for the caterpillar, Gonimbrasia belina, and grasshoppers, some of which
are cured when supplies are plentiful.
The only ingredients added during preparation are salt and water. The insects are stewed dry, then roasted
crisp (except for Bombycomorpha pallida and Cirina forda which
are not roasted). Grasshopper legs are
prepared differently from the other dishes.
The protein content and calories in these relish servings are shown in
South Africa Table 1 (see Quin's pages 230 to 235); according to Quin, all of
the relishes are very popular with many of them preferred to meat (South Africa
Table 2). Quin can be considered a
severe critic relative to flavor; although he studied the Pedi for years and
knew that they thoroughly enjoyed these insects, when he first began sampling
them for himself he repeatedly found it necessary to go outside and retch!
Quin discussed ecological and
acculturation factors whereby the coming of "civilization" wreaked
havoc among the Pedi and concluded that, "the recognition and
encouragement of their traditional foods and feeding habits could be the means
of alleviating, and perhaps even solving, the great problem of malnutrition and
disease among these people."
Relative to insects as a traditional food, Quin states that because of
the general deterioration of vegetation and the loss of locust invasions (the
result of modern control programs to the north), insects have been reduced to a
relatively minor role in the Pedi dietary.
He summarized four general reasons why the Pedi, by 1959, hovered
between bare existence and starvation (see pages 274-275):
A) Restricted
domicile: The Pedi had formerly
inhabited a vast unrestricted area.
When the land became unproductive or grazing became poor they could
move, allowing the land to reestablish productivity. Furthermore, the country teemed with game. The Pedi are now restricted, the game is
virtually exterminated, and the vegetation and top-soil are virtually
destroyed.
B) Indiscriminant
disposal of food supplies: Before the
advent of the European trader the Pedi had no outlet for their beans and
surplus grain, largely kaffir-corn and maize, and it was stored against times
of shortage. The tendency today is to
dispose of the bulk of the food crop "often even at the expense of current
requirements, and what is more, to spend the proceeds on non-essentials like
smart clothing or useless nick-nacks for which the Pedi has developed a great
liking." Thus, food supplies,
disposed of with such prodigality, must be bought back at a premium.
C) Change in
food habits: The "mealie"
replaced the traditional Kaffir-corn as the staple. Induction of much of the male population into industry and away
from their traditional dietary caused many "to acquire new, but not
necessarily better, feeding habits."
Thus, "Simultaneously with civilization the Pedi have developed the
unfortunate tendency of ignoring some of their valuable traditional foods,
adopting cheap inferior European foods -- the only ones they can afford to
buy."
D) Changes
in socio-economic structure: These
changes have been drastic. Efforts of
the individual were formerly focused on the production and acquisition of food,
but are now offered in exchange for money.
Their earning capacity is low and not sufficient to buy food and
the numerous other items that, through civilization, have now become
essentials.
Sparrman (1787, I: 201) mentioned grasshoppers, white
ants (Termes), caterpillars, and other insect larvae among the foods of
the Hottentots. Despite a variety of
wild foods, however, the Bushman is "frequently in want, and famished to
such a degree, as to waste almost to a shadow."
Junod (1962 [original edition 1913?], I: 65; II:
80-83, 334-337) discusses numerous edible insects utilized by the Thonga tribe
(see under appropriate groups below).
Junod states that, "Although the caterpillars, coleoptera, larvae,
and locusts are universally appreciated, there are other 'meats' which appeal
to certain individuals of clans, but are disdainfully eschewed by
others." A number of examples are
given: ". . . .the boa is eaten
with great gusto by the Rongas and disliked by the Nkunas. The same is true of the big varon
lizard. The tortoise is generally
eaten, but the Mpfumu boys, who esteem themselves more civilized, reject it. .
. .Owing to disgust, some people refuse to eat pork. . . .Zulus reject
every kind of fish (nhlampfi) from the same feeling of disgust. . .
.Snails are despised by all the Thongas. . . ." Some other animals are refused because they are taboo, one of
them being a tenebrionid beetle.
Schapera's (1930) observations on the food habits of the
Bushmen and Hottentots are discussed under Botswana and Namibia, respectively.
According to Faure (1944),
locusts, flying termites, and large saturniid larvae are used as food by the
Mapulana, in addition to a pentatomid (see below under Hemiptera for the
latter).
Bryant (1949: 290) cites several earlier publications
for the following information on insect foods of the Zulu:
"The
children, for instance were rather partial to roasted caterpillar, selecting a
huge fat and hairless specimen, which they called iCimbi, and which is the
larva of several kinds of moth, according as it is found on the umuNga,
the umGanu, or other trees.
White-ants or termites, in season, that is, when emerging from the
ground in the flying stage during their breeding season, are greedily gathered
up by the Zulu children and, stripped of their wings, fried, as a great
delicacy, on a pot-lid, they being called iNtlwabusi and iHlwabusi. In former times, in periods of famine,
roasted locust (iziNkumbi) was a godsend to all, and said by Europeans,
who ventured to taste them, to possess the flavour of shrimps. . . ."
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) recorded several species used as
food in South Africa, as communicated to him by Dr. J.C. Faure (discussed below
under their respective families).
According to its authors, Cunningham
and Pieser (1991), the Primary Health Care Booklet was
written for primary health care workers and teachers because knowledge about
traditional wild foods is being lost as it is rarely taught in modern schools.
Meanwhile, malnutrition remains a major problem, one reason being the lack of a
mixed balanced diet. The authors advise, "Do not forget about wild foods
which are available at no cost."
In the booklet, the insects are included in the meat group: amacimbi,
or emperor moth larvae (Saturniidae), mostly Microgone cana, Brunea alcinoe,
and Cirina forda; and izinhlwalbusi, winged adults of the
ant, Carebara vidua. The amacimbi
are noted as a good source of protein and thiamin and an excellent source of
riboflavin and calcium. As meat, amacimbi
can be prepared by either sundrying or roasting, and salt may be added. For adding to soups, amacimbi should
be cleaned, boiled for approximately 2 1/2 hours, steamed dry and fried.
Cunningham (1992) states:
"The
traditional conservation practice of not felling edible wild fruit producing
trees when clearing fields is widespread in Africa, and is a major reason for
maintenance of woody plant cover outside of conservation areas. Some of these trees (e.g., Sclerocarya
birrea [Anacardiaceae]) are also important sources of edible insect larvae
(e.g., Cirina forda [Saturniidae]) feeding on Sclerocarya leaves,
and cerambycid larvae from dead Sclerocarya trees. What is also increasingly widespread is the
social stigma against gathering of wild food resources, which is locally viewed
as `primitive' compared to buying food from the local store. The result is removal of the incentive to
conserve wild fruit bearing trees, and neglect of a nutritionally important food
resource in marginal agricultural areas by often poor communities."
In a 1993 Reuters press dispatch
published in various newspapers (e.g., the Papua New Guinea Post-Courier,
July 30), Anton Ferreira provided coverage of a cocktail party for
delegates attending a meeting of the South African Entomological Society. The snacks were four kinds of insects,
termites, stinkbugs ("a delicacy in Natal"), locusts and mopanie
worms (the latter "widely eaten by Africa's peasant communities, usually
after being dried"). The locusts
were prepared by lightly frying in olive oil with just a hint of crushed
garlic. Another favorite way of cooking
them is with garlic butter and peri peri sauce. Ferreira said the mopanie worms took on the addictive properties
of peanuts, especially after being dipped in sour cream. Marcus Byrne, who masterminded the event,
said the serious message was to educate people that insects are themselves an
important food source. Jan Crafford,
who is researching the role of insects in the diet and folk lore of the Venda
tribe in northern South Africa, was quoted saying, "Some black communities
obtain 80 per cent of their protein from insects."
McCallum (1993) makes several references to edible insect
use among the Venda people. First (p.
86): "When the Venda husband comes for his meal . . . The senior wife will
bring the porridge and a special bowl, much smaller, with the relish of the day
-- caterpillars (very nutritious) or chicken or spinach with onions (moroka),
always with salt in it." Again (p.
147): "The flying ants come out at the rains, and they hatch in
thousands. In Sibasa (Venda) . . . I
remember seeing dozens of young Venda girls running in after the ants, kneeling
down and grabbing them in handfuls, stuffing them into their mouths, not even
waiting for them to die -- wings and all.
They also used to roast these insects."
Coleoptera
The Pedi, according to Quin (1959),
refer to all beetles as dikhunkhwane.
Only the adults are used as food, and before cooking them the elytra are
removed. Quin noted that, in addition
to the use of specific beetles as food, "the Pedi housewife displays no
concern in preparing food from weevil-infested grain or meal and
unceremoniously includes them in her dishes." Quin also noted that although dung beetles are commonly used in
the Far East, "the Pedi abhor the idea of eating the local Scarabaeus
sacar (kgoba-boloko)."
Buprestidae
(metallic woodborers)
Sternocera
orissa Buquet, adult
The buprestid, Sternocera orissa
(lebitsi-kgoma), about 3.5-4.0 cm in length and weighing about 2.6g, is
especially sought after by the Pedi although not commonly found in the vicinity
of the villages. It is collected by
hand in the early morning while the beetles are still lethargic. The host plants are pendoring (Gymnosporia
senegalensis) and witdoring (Acacia campylacantha). There is one generation per year, in the
spring (Quin 1959). Bodenheimer
had earlier reported (1951: 143-144) S. orissa Buq. as being
regularly collected in the Transvaal.
Among the Thonga, Sternocera
orissa, known as shitambela, is roasted by the shepherds and eaten
after first removing the elytra (Junod 1913).
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Plocoederus
frenatus (author?), larva
Stenodontes
(= Mallodon) downesi (= downesii) Hope, larva
Among the Thonga, when the cooks
split the trunks of old half-decayed nkanye trees for kindling wood,
they are careful to lay aside the large white larvae of the cerambycid beetles,
Mallodon downesii, Plocoederus frenatus, and others (Junod
1913): "These enormous white
worms (shipungu) will be fried in their own fat, and served up as a
tit-bit for the ladies on their return to the village." The large white larvae, the shipungwana,
of another cerambycid which dig channels in the stems of nkanye, nkuhlu,
mphesa, etc., are also readily eaten.
The larva of Mallodon downesi
is esteemed by the kafir (Berensberg 1907). Concerning this species, Distant (1904; vide Duffy
1957, p. 54) notes that "natives eat the young larvae after roasting them
on twigs." See also Cunningham
(1992) in the Introduction.
Curculionidae
(snout beetles, weevils)
Polycleis
equestris Boheman, adult
Polycleis
plumbeus Guerin, adult
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis (Fabr.), larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) sp., larva
Polycleis equestris and P. plumbeus, 1.25-1.85 cm in length, are
eaten by the Pedi (Quin 1959).
The host plant is witdoring, and the weevils are collected by hand. There is one generation per summer,
according to the Pedi.
The Thonga readily eat the larvae of
a large Calandra sp. which swarm in the stems of the palm trees of the
marsh (Junod 1913).
During a study of palm wine yields (Cunningham
1990), palm stems were occasionally infested by larvae of Rhynchophorus
phoenicis and an unidentified scarabaeid beetle. This results in cessation of sap flow but was insignificant to
total yield, affecting only 0.3% of stems tapped.
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Oryctes
boas Fabr., larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes
monoceros Ol., larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes
owariensis Beauv., larva, occasionally the adult
Bodenheimer (1951: 186), without attributing a source, states
that the larvae and, occasionally adults, of Oryctes boas F., O.
owariensis Beauv., and O. monoceros Ol. are eaten in South Africa.
Tenebrionidae
(darkling beetles)
The tenebrionid beetle, Psammodes
bertoloni, known as shifufuni sha paripari, is taboo among the
Thonga although other coleopterans are eaten (Junod 1913).
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Euchosternum
delegorguei (= delagorguei) (Spinola),
adult
Faure (1944) discussed the use of the hemipteran, Euchosternum
delagorguei, known as thosono (plural dithsonono), by the
Mapulana in the Pilgrimsrest district of the eastern Transvaal. This insect is highly esteemed even though
it emits a fluid that, unless avoided, severly burns the eyes. It is a large bug, 24-27 mm long and 13-15
mm wide. They appear only in the winter
season, from April to July, and there is only one generation per year. Nothing is known about the nymphal
stages. The adults occur in
aggregations that swarm during the day, settling again as evening approaches on
a variety of trees and brushy plants including among others the
"kaffer-wag-nbietjie" thorn (Acacia ataxacantha var. australis). They are collected at sundown or early in
the morning, or on misty, cloudy days.
Faure describes how the "poison" of the stink-gland is
eliminated (sometimes perfunctorily apparently) and how the bugs are prepared
for eating. They are sometimes eaten
raw, but usually they are cooked and eaten either with porridge or alone.
Homoptera
Psyllidae
(psyllids)
Psylla sp., sweet secretion
David Livingstone (1857: 164) reported a species of Psylla
on the leaves of the mopané-tree (Genus Bauhinia) in Bushmen
country near Maila. The people collect
the sweet gummy secretion of this scale insect in great quantities and use it
as food.
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
The Thonga appreciate the bees, or nyoshi,
for their honey, and eat the larva or shipungwa with as much pleasure as
the honey itself (Junod 1913).
Formicidae
(ants)
Carebara
vidua Sm., winged adult
The Pedi refer to both ants and
termites as ditshoswane (Quin 1959). The large female flying sexuals of the ant, Carebara vidua,
nearly 2 cm long, are called dintlhwa makhura, while the males, equally
long but less heavy, are called dintlhwa bogwale. There are three or four generations per year
and they are collected by hand as they emerge from the ground after heavy
rains. According to Quin, they play an
important role in the Pedi dietary and it is unfortunate that they are
procurable only five or six times per year.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) had earlier mentioned that the
females and possibly males of C. vidua Sm. are regularly collected in
the Transvaal.
See also Cunningham and Peiser
(1991) in the Introduction.
Isoptera
Hodotermitidae
Hodotermes sp., "nymphs"
Microhodotermes
viator Latr., "flyer nymphs"
Fuller (1918; vide Phelps et al 1975) reported that
human fatalities resulted from eating nearly mature nymphs of Hodotermes.
In Namaqualand, "flyer-nymphs"
are dug from the nests of Microhodotermes viator Latr.; they resemble
rice-grains when cooked, and this is presumed to be the origin of the Afrikaan
name for termite, rysmier, or rice-ant (Bodenheimer 1951:
143-144).
Termitidae
Macrotermes
swaziae Fuller, winged adult
Odontotermes (= Termes) badius (Haviland), winged
adult
Termes
capensis DeGeer, winged adult
According to Quin (1959),
the flying sexuals of Termes badius, which are approximately 1.25 cm
long, are referred to as lekeke.
There are several generations per year.
They appear after heavy rains in the summer and are collected as they
emerge from the ground.
Sparrman (1787: 307) noted that the food of elderly
fugitive Bushmen consists in great measure of termites. Among the termites eaten is Termes
capensis De Geer (pp. 361-364) and they are either boiled in the same
manner as grasshoppers or eaten raw.
Sparrman comments on the vast numbers of these soft, milk-white,
large-winged insects. He was informed
that when these termites were available, the Bushmen and other Hottentots soon
grew fat and in good condition from eating them.
Regarding termites, Simmonds
(1885: 370-371) quotes a Capt. Carmichael as follows:
One
evening, it was I think about the middle of May, as we sat enjoying ourselves
at dinner, we observed a number of flies of an uncommon aspect, flitting past
the tent. We started up and endeavoured
to catch one of them, but without effect.
Some Hottentot children, who were standing on an opposite bank,
remarking our anxiety, came and offered us whole handfuls of them, and
directing us to the spot where they had caught them; our astonishment is not to
be expressed when we beheld millions of winged insects issuing into daylight
from fissures in the earth, and through the pores as it were of the ground
where no opening was perceptible. Near
these outlets the children had posted themselves, and collecting the insects as
they emerged, greedily devoured them.
Such of them as escaped the Hottentots were snapped up as they flew
along by the small birds and by the Libellulae [dragonflies] and other
predatory flies. The body of these tiny
insects is so small and the wings are so large and unwieldy, that they could
hardly support themselves in the air, as they floated along at the humour of
the breeze. They were the males of the Termes
capensis, commonly known as the white ant.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) mentioned that winged sexuals of
Macrotermes swaziae Fuller are regularly collected in the Transvaal.
Miscellaneous
Isoptera
Backhouse (1844: 584; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 155),
referring to the Hottentots, remarked on the resemblance of flying white ants
and their "pupae" to rice grains, and described them as quite
palatable. A large nest sometimes
yields a bushel of "pupae."
The Hottentots utilize them after their corn supply is consumed. Backhouse noted that when Hottentots were
able to find termites in abundance, they soon became fat, even when previously
reduced by hunger.
Stowe (1905: 58-59) states, regarding the
Bushmen: "The most abundant
supplies of insect food were derived from the innumerable ant-hills found in
the country, and in the early days the almost periodical visits of vast swarms
of locusts." Stowe continues:
The
Bushman-rice, as it was termed by the Dutch, or chrysalides of white ants
obtained from the ants' nests, was merely gathered in such quantities as
sufficed for daily use. This Bushman
rice was called 'Kasu' by the Bushmen themselves. To obtain a supply, the nest was opened with
a digging stick, called 'Kibi.'
The 'eggs' were then taken out and placed upon a small grass mat, made
expressly for the purpose, and which was used as a sieve. The 'eggs' were then properly sorted, and placed
in a small grass basket or skin bag, and the process was continued until a
sufficient quantity was obtained. They
were then taken to the cave or camp, when they were placed on the fire, on a
flat stone with a little fat, and roasted until they were brown, when they were
considered fit for use.
According to Bodenheimer (1951:
142), Moffat reported that termites cooked in butter, and caterpillars, grilled
and roasted, are consumed. According to
Berensberg (1907), the Hottentots eat termites both boiled and
raw, while the Indians in Natal eat the flying termites after removing the
wings.
According to Junod (1913),
one of the favorite insect dishes of the Thonga is provided by the winged white
ants or termites which emerge around Christmas by the thousands. The soldiers are collected by inserting
grasses, smeared with glue, into the holes.
The heads are eaten and the bodies thrown into a calabash to season the
evening meal. To collect the winged
forms, a hole is dug in the termite mound and an old pot is placed in the
bottom of the hole. The expected exit
hole is covered with green branches which prevent the termites from flying when
they emerge. Those which happen to
emerge under the covering of branches fall into the pot which becomes full
within a few hours. Many of those which
do not emerge under the branches fall prey to birds and toads.
See also Sparrman (1787), Faure
(1944), Bryant (1949) and McCallum (1993) in the Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Lasiocampidae
(eggar moths, lappets)
Bombycomorpha
pallida Distant, larva
Gonometa
postica Walker, pupa
Caterpillars are referred to
collectively as diboko by the Pedi (Quin 1959). The larva of Bombycomorpha pallida (ngwana
mamahlwehlwana) is about 3.0 cm in length and has one generation per year,
according to Quin. This species occurs
in the winter, whereas all other lepidopterous larvae become available during
the summers.
The edible pupae of Gonometa
postica (mmakonokono) are 3.75 cm in length and enclosed in a tough
parchment-like cocoon. Host plants of
the larva, which is not eaten by the Pedi, are witdoring, huilbos (Peltophorum
africanum), and pendoring. The
cocoons occur on twigs of the host plants.
There is apparently one generation per year, normally during January and
February, according to Quin (1959).
Zumpt (1971) reported an outbreak of rumen impaction
among cattle that resulted from ingestion of cocoons of Gonometa postica (Walker). Several hundred animals were reported to
have died. Zumpt described symptoms and
autopsy findings. Affected animals were
in poor to extremely poor condition, stunted in growth and pot-bellied. In three cases studied in which rumenotomies
were performed, the rumen contained a single mass of impacted ingesta, the mass
weighing 45, 71 and 82 lbs, respectively.
The average weight in 41 cases in which the impactions were removed
operatively was 34 lbs. In each case
the impaction was a solid interwoven mass of ingesta particles adhering to fine
silken threads. The age of affected animals
ranged from seven months to four years, the majority being 1-2 years old. Attempts to dissolve the masses with
surface-reducing and other agents were unsuccessful; removal of the impactions
was the only remedy.
Zumpt concluded from the case
histories that the cocoons are ingested during the weaning stage. Calves are normally kraaled-off under thorn
trees. The caterpillars of G.
postica, which appear shortly after the first summer rains, live on thorn
trees, especially black thorn and camel thorn.
Their cocoons are about 5 x 2 cm in size and are covered with tiny,
short, black spicules. Counts done in
calf-kraals indicated that more than 60% of the pupae in the cocoons had been
parasitized. Peak parasitization of
cocoons was also noted in the 1934 outbreak involving G. rufobrunnea
(Edwards 1935). Zumpt suggests that
parasitized cocoons probably dry out quickly and thus break off easily during
spring winds. Calves, which pick up and
lick many foreign objects during the weaning period, thus come into contact
with large numbers of cocoons.
Collection of all cocoons in weaning kraals prior to occupation appears
to be the only practical prophylactic measure.
Zumpt states that destruction of the caterpillars, cocoons or moths
would be an enormous task and probably impractical.
Edwards (1935) reported losses of cattle from rumen
impaction in the Northern Transvaal caused by the ingestion of cocoons of Gonometa
rufobrunnea Auriv. The outbreak
lasted two seasons and occurred when parasitization of cocoons was at its peak.
Saturniidae
(giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea
alcinoe (= caffra, caffraria)
Stoll, larva
Cirina
forda (Westwood), larva
Gonimbrasia (= Conimbrasia, Nudaurelia) belina
Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia
zambesina Walker, larva
Gynanisa
maia (Klug), larva
Imbrasia
epimethea Drury, larva
Melanocera
menippe (author?), larva
Microgone
cana (author?), larva
Urota
sinope Westwood (= Cirina similis),
larva
The large, pretty caterpillars of
the saturniid, Gonimbrasia belina (notoleetsana) are 8-10 cm in
length and are known as masonja or "mopanie worms" by the Pedi
(Quin 1959). In Pedi territory
where the mophane (Copaifera mopane) is exotic, host plants are confined
to Sclerocarya caffra and Burkea africana. There are one to three generations per
year. The larvae are ready for
harvesting approximately three weeks after emergence and are available for
three to four weeks before they pupate in the soil around the base of the host
plant. The caterpillars grip the host
plant tightly and cannot be shaken off; they must be picked by hand. According to Quin, a good picker in an average
infestation can collect 18 kg (40 lb) of larvae per hour.
These caterpillars have been fairly
extensively commercialized. In areas
where they occur in profusion and are bulk-dried, they are first eviscerated
(methods are described by Quin), the rate of evisceration being about 7.3kg (16
lb) of caterpillars per person per hour.
They are then roasted for 15 minutes, then spread out to dry, which
requires about 43 hr for the product to become sufficiently dry for
storage. According to Quin, all three methods
of evisceration are wasteful as a large proportion of fat is discarded along
with the waste. The gut is removed
mainly to eliminate the resin-flavored mopanie leaves that have been ingested. [Author's note: The waste associated with eviscerating could possibly be
eliminated by starving the collected caterpillars for a few hours and then
curing them whole, as is done with caterpillars in some other parts of
Africa.] Quin recorded a weight loss of
84% during the processing and drying of larvae.
Quin mentions that a trader informed
him that he alone handled more than 1000 32 kg (70 lb) bags of these
caterpillars per year. Also, according
to Quin, when given a choice the Pedi prefers 1/4 lb (114 g) of these caterpillars
to 1 lb (454 g) of fresh beef. Further,
a local trading business provided the information that these caterpillars, when
available, seriously affect the sale of beef.
Quin states that probably the only feasible way of meeting the demand
for insect foods is to expand the masonja industry, not only in the
Northern Transvaal but in adjoining Bechuanaland (now Botswana) and Zimbabwe.
The caterpillars of Gynanisa maia
(legakgale) are 8-10 cm long when fully grown (Quin 1959). Host plants include witdoring, huilbos, and
pendoring. The larvae are collected by
hand early in the morning, as they tend to move to the top of the tree during
the heat of the day. There is one
generation per year. The caterpillars of
Cirina forda (noto) are about 6.0-7.5 cm long; the host plant is
wild sering (Burkea africana) and there is one generation per year.
Dreyer (1968) determined protein digestibilities of 135
foodstuffs in trials with young albino rats.
The digestibility of mopani-worm meal (Gonimbrasia belina), which
is eaten as a delicacy in considerable quantities by most rural Bantu tribes,
was only 78.3%. Previous work by A.S.
Wehmeyer (unpublished data) had found the amino acid composition of dried
mopani worms to be relatively complete with high proportions of lysine and
tryptophan (which are limiting in maize protein) and of methionine (limiting in
legume seed proteins). Absorption of
some nitrogenous components may be reduced by the presence of chitin in insect
tissues. Other foods with protein
digestibilities generally below 80% include dried beans, kaffircorn, and two
other traditional Bantu foods (marogo and Bantu beer).
According to Dreyer and Wehmeyer
(1982), the South African Bureau of Standards estimates annual sales of
mopanie caterpillars, G. belina, through agricultural cooperative
markets at about 40,000 bags, each containing 40 kg of traditionally prepared,
dried caterpillars. This amounts to
1600 metric tons entering reported channels of commerce, but one would presume
that this is only a fraction of the volume actually consumed. There is now a mopanie worm cannery at
Pietersburg in the northern Transvaal.
Dreyer and Wehmeyer analyzed two
kinds of mopanie material: 1)
Traditionally prepared, in which the intestinal contents are squeezed out by
hand, with the remainder being dried by exposure to sunlight (the drying
process is sometimes accelerated by placing the material on a metal plate over
an open fire), and 2) Canned material, prepared from dried caterpillars which
had been soaked in water overnight but to which no condiments had been
added. The soaking water was discarded,
and the material then steamed, canned, freeze-dried and ground. Results of analyses of these two types of
samples are shown in South Africa Table 3.
Differences in nutrient content of the two samples pertained mainly to
water-soluble components such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, and the
B-complex vitamins, which were found in smaller quantities in the canned than
in the uncanned product, probably due to losses in the soaking water which was
discarded. The investigators consider
the heat treatment applied during canning as another probable cause of nutrient
loss, noting that the concentration of thiamine (a heat-labile vitamin) in the
canned sample was only 16% of that in the uncanned sample. Despite such losses, the authors conclude
that most of the nutrients listed are "present in concentrations
sufficiently high to make substantial contributions to the traditional,
predominantly cereal diet of the people using the mopanie caterpillar as a food." Unpublished data by Wehmeyer are cited which
show that the traditional maize porridge made from unsifted meal yields only
the following per 100 g solids: protein
9 g, fat 4.33 g, calcium 3.67 mg, iron 3.13 mg, phosphorus 224 mg, copper 0.3
mg, and zinc 2.0 mg.
Dreyer and Wehmeyer determined dry
matter digestibility using both intact and caecectomized rats, the latter being
anatomically closer to humans. The
indigestible dry matter (IDM) content of the moisture-free caterpillars was
comparatively high, 20.1% and 31.3% in the intact and caecectomized rats,
respectively. This was due in part to a
relatively low protein digestibility value, but also, apparently, to a high
cellulose content, indicating that the digestive tracts of the caterpillars
were not completely cleaned out during preparation of the samples studied. Digestibility of mopanie protein was found
to be relatively low compared to protein from other products of animal origin
(South Africa Table 4).
As discussed by Dreyer and Wehmeyer,
however, this weakness
"was
compensated for to a considerable degree by an assimilability index which
compares favourably with those of the high-class products such as casein and
beef. The net effect of the
digestibility and assimilability, as given by the NPU [Net Protein Utilization]
values, is such that, quality-wise, the mopanie product protein occupies a
position well above the midpoint between the bottom end (gluten, 27%) and the
uppermost point on the scale of natural proteins as exemplified by whole hen's
egg protein (85%)."
The authors
suggest that the low values for mopanie protein digestibility result from the
fact that some of the nitrogenous components in insects are present in the form
of chitin, which is not hydrolyzed in the intestinal tracts of mammals because
of the absence of chitinase. Assuming
the assimilable protein requirement for nitrogen equilibrium in a 70 kg man to
be about 30 g per day, it can be estimated from the NPV's (Net Protein Value)
in Table 4 that 67.4 g of moisture-free caterpillars would meet this
requirement. Assuming a moisture
content of 83.1% in whole, fresh caterpillars, as determined by Quin, 399 g of
fresh material or about 69 fresh caterpillars would furnish the requirement.
From their studies, Dreyer and Wehmeyer
concluded that,
"the
consumption of mopanie caterpillars can to a substantial degree supplement the
predominantly cereal diet with many of the protective nutrients. The main advantage of this foodstuff is its
high protein value, in spite of the fact that the digestibility of this protein
is lower than that of most proteins of animal origin. The traditional method of degutting does not yield a product
completely free from gut contents, a considerable amount of cellulosic material
still being detectable in the samples investigated."
The large "lopané"
caterpillars which were collected in great quantities for use as food, referred
to by Livingstone (1857: 164), may have been G. belina as
Livingstone mentions they feed on the leaves of the mopané-tree.
Berensberg (1907) mentioned that the fat caterpillars of
the saturniids, Gynanisa maia, Nudaurelia belina and Bunaea
caffra are emptied, stuck on small sticks, and roasted by the natives of
Natal.
According to Junod (1913),
edible saturniid caterpillars eaten by the Thonga tribe are collectively known
as tomane. These include Cirina
similis (Dist.) [Quin 1959: 114, calls this species Urota sinope],
which are found in groups on the nkanye tree in October, and are known
as matomane. In Junod's words: "By the exercise of a gentle pressure
on the hideous creatures, the inside is squeezed out, and the rest is thrown
into a saucepan and boiled, resulting in an indescribable broth of a blackish
colour. To see it is quite sufficient .
. . . and they enjoy it!" Other
species include Bunaea caffraria the matomane of nyamari; Melanocera
menippe; Gonimbrasia zambesina, on the nhlangula shrub, and
others.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) mentions Gonimbrasia belina
and other large saturniid caterpillars among the insect foods in South Africa,
as communicated to him by J.C. Faure. Velcich
(1963; vide Malaisse & Parent 1980) states that to the north of
Transvaal, the Gonimbrasia belina harvest takes place from December to
February and from April to May. [Note: Doubtful that Velcich should be included
under S. Africa. Need to see the
original.]
In a 1994 Reuters press release
(e.g., San Francisco Chronicle, September 4), Anton Ferreira
interviewed insect expert Chris Styles and reported that the mopane worm (Imbrasia
belina) is such an irresistable snack that the people of southern Africa
could be eating it into extinction.
"People utilize them tremendously, both as food and as a way to
make money," Styles said. "In
a lean year when they are hard to come by, a kilogram (2.2 pounds) will fetch
$30 in Johannesburg or Pretoria."
Styles said an increasing number of young women were harvesting mopane worms as alternative
employment dried up in southern Africa's rural areas. He said nature conservation in South Africa had focused on the
mammals like rhino and elephants at the expense of creatures like the mopane
worm which were less spectacular but more relevant for rural communities. "Conservation means nothing to these
communities if they don't benefit from it." Styles hopes to find a way to farm the caterpillars.
In a Reuter dispatch (Financial
Gazette [Zimbabwe], August 10, 1995), Deputy Environmental Affairs Minister
Bantu Holomisa told researchers attending a seminar at the University of
Pretoria that mopane-worm farming is a potential gold mine for sustainable
rural development in S. Africa. Rural
communities' reliance on the caterpillar, with its high protein content, shows
an important use for wildlife resources. He said his department would help
researchers to promote the cash benefits of the worm and to start pilot
programs to farm them. Some farmers are
using pesticides against the worms, but that will change "once they know
there is a gold mine in them,"
Holomisa said. "In the long
term, farming of mopane worms is going to be feasible -- there's no doubt about
that. South Africans, especially in the
northern areas, love these worms."
He added that experimental breeding programs could also help reverse a
trend towards environmental neglect.
"Under the twin onslaught of poverty and excess, South Africa's
natural resource base is crumbling and its biological diversity is
dwindling. In the long term, environmental
neglect leads to a bankrupt nation with little hope of ecological and economic
recovery. The solution lies in
recognising that conservation and development are both necessary and
interdependent."
Among other points made at the
seminar, studies by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
have shown that the mopane worm averages 10% protein, and taking 15 worms per
day satisfies the adult requirements for calcium, iron and riboflavin. At least 2,000 women in the Northern
Province are involved in collecting the worms, both as food and a source of income. The worms are usually sun-dried after
harvesting which gives them a long shelf-life.
They are added to stews or eaten alone like peanuts. In Johannesburg, they cost up to 105 rand per
kilogram.
See also Faure (1944), Cunningham (1992)
and Cunningham and Peiser (1991) in the Introduction.
Sphingidae
(sphinx or hawk moths)
Agrius (= Herse) convolvuli (Linn.), larva
The caterpillar of Herse
convolvuli (naatla), the sweet potato sphinx, feeds on Convolvuli
sp., is 6.0-7.5 cm in length, and has one generation per year (Quin 1959).
Miscellaneous
Lepidoptera
Livingstone (1858: 48) mentioned that, in Boer country: "In traveling we sometimes suffered
considerably from scarcity of meat, though not from absolute want of food. This was felt more especially by my
children; and the natives, to show their sympathy, often gave them a large kind
of caterpillar, which they seemed to relish; these insects could not be
unwholesome, for the natives devoured them in large quantities
themselves."
Cloudsley-Thompson (1953) reported the following:
"Some
South African friends with whom I was staying in November, 1942, took me to an
estate of theirs not far from Johannesburg, some days after a heavy hailstorm
had caused considerable damage in the Transvaal. Branches and leaves smashed from the trees lay scattered on the
ground and a large number of three-inch caterpillars of a cryptic bluish-green
colour, bruised and dead, were mingled with the debris. While we were looking at them, a Zulu came
up and asked permission to gather the insects which, he said, were very good to
eat."
See also Sparrman (1787), Bryant
(1949) and McCallum (1993) in the Introduction.
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville)
(= Gryllus devastator),
nymph, adult
Locusta sp., adult
Locustana
pardalina (Walker), adult
Schistocerca sp., adult
Prior to 1937, heavy invasions of
both the brown locust (Locustana pardalina) and the red locust (Nomadacris
septemfasciata), occurred periodically in the northern Transvaal (Quin
1959). Great quantities were
collected and it was not uncommon to see wagons "loaded high" with
bags of locusts. Because of the
vegetational deterioration, locusts as well as most other insects are seldom
collected now in sufficient quantities to allow preservation and storage. Quin discusses two species of importance to
the Pedi. The brown locust, L.
pardalina (segongwane), is about 6-7 cm long. It is practically confined to the inland
plateau, preferring drier areas with short vegetation and karoo-bush. There are ordinarily two generations per
year, but dependent on rainfall, temperature, food supply and natural enemies,
there may be three in some years. They
are mainly grass eaters but readily attack crops. They are collected by hand at night or in early morning while
still lethargic.
The red locust, C. septemfasciata
(maphata-kalala), is large, 7.5 cm from front of head to tip of
folded wings. It primarily inhabits
tropical and subtropical regions.
According to Quin, there have been no invasions of the Northern
Transvaal since 1937. The red locust
feeds on the grass family, but attacks a variety of other plants. There is only one generation per year in
South Africa. Both hoppers and fliers
are collected, this being done in bulk by hand during the night or early
morning while they are still lethargic.
Locusts have a long history as human
food in South Africa. Sparrman (1787,
I: 366-367) states that:
The
locusts, likewise sometimes afforded a delicious treat to the more unpolished
and remote hordes of the Hottentots; when, as sometimes happens, after an
interval of eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty years, they make their appearance in
incredible numbers. . . the Hottentots were highly rejoiced at the arrival of
these locusts, though they are sure to destroy every bit of verdure on the
ground: but the Hottentots make
themselves ample amends for this loss, by falling foul on the animals
themselves, eating them in such quantities as, in the space of a few days, to
get visibly fatter and in better condition than before.
Steedman (1835, I: 137) notes that the Bushmen are
particularly partial to locusts; he also observed locusts being fed to fowls
which devoured them avidly. Steedman
remarks that "the gamebirds we shot in this part of the country had a
strong and disagreeable flavour, in consequence, as I supposed of feeding on
these insects."
Pringle (1835) vividly describes the abundance of
locusts and mentions (p. 164) that they are devoured by "every animal,
domestic and wild. . . . whilst the half-starved Bushmen, and even some of the
Colonial Hottentots consider them a great luxury, consuming great quantities
fresh, and drying abundance for future emergencies." Pringle refers to the locust of South Africa
as Gryllus devastator, and states that, "The flying locusts, though
often seen in such numbers as to obscure the sky when they are passing, and to
destroy luxurient fields of corn in a few hours, are less dreaded by the
farmers than the larvae, devoid of wings -- vulgarly called by the colonists voetgangers
(foot-goers)."
Cumming (1850: 69; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 162) reported
passing through a swarm of locusts in April that was so dense that, when
resting at night, they covered the vegetation.
As summarized in part by Bodenheimer:
"Locusts afford fattening and wholesome food to men, birds and all
sorts of beasts; cows and horses, lions, jackals, hyenas, antelopes, elephants,
etc. devour them. [Cumming] met a party
of Batlapis carrying heavy loads of them on their backs. His hungry dogs made a fine feast upon
them. The locusts were roasted as food
for his men as well as for the dogs."
The Korannas and Bushmen of the Cape
greet the approach of locusts with joy, according to Fleming (1853: 80):
Horses,
dogs, cats, and poultry, all devour them with avidity, and the Korannas and
Bushmen save them in large quantities, and then grind them between two stones
into a kind of meal, which they mix with fat and grease, and bake in cakes. Upon these they live for months together,
and are seen leaping, clapping their hands together, and chattering with the
greatest joy, so soon as the locusts are seen approaching.
Fleming described
the locusts as seeming to be "a smaller kind of the Gryllus Migratorius,
or Migratory Locust," (Locusta migratoria).
Moffat (1865: 298-299) gives a vivid description of a
destructive locust invasion in 1826:
"They had not been seen for more than twenty years before, but have
never entirely left the country since. . . . The natives embrace every
opportunity of gathering them, which can be done during the night. Whenever the cloud alights at a place not
very distant from a town, the inhabitants turn out with sacks, and often with
pack-oxen, gather loads, and return the next day with millions." The locusts are prepared for eating by
boiling them, then spreading them on mats to dry in the sun. The legs and wings are removed by winnowing,
and they are eaten whole with a little salt or may be pounded into a meal to
which a little water is added to make a kind of cold stir-about. According to Moffat, when the locusts abound
the natives become quite fat. He states
of the locusts that, "They are, on the whole, not bad food. . . . When
full-fed they are almost as good as shrimps." Moffat, similarly to Pringle earlier, notes that the adult
swarms, "fearful as they are, bear no comparison to the devastation they
make before they are able to fly. . . ."
One species is mentioned, with reddish wings, that is inedible.
Livingstone (1858: 48) mentions that, in the Boer country of
the Cashan Mountains, their supplies were so irregular that they were
"sometimes fain to accept a dish of locusts." He says:
These
are quite a blessing in the country, so much so that the rain-doctors
sometimes promised to bring them by their incantations. The locusts are strongly vegetable in taste,
the flavor varying with the plants on which they feed. There is a physiological reason why locusts
and honey should be eaten together.
Some are roasted and pounded into meal, which, eaten with a little salt,
is palatable. It will keep thus for
months. Boiled, they are disagreeable;
but when they are roasted I should much prefer locusts to shrimps, though I
would avoid both if possible.
Simmonds (1885: 351) credits Alfred Cole with the
information that a whole kraal of Caffres once died after having consumed an
unusual quantity of locusts. Kunckel
d'Hercules (1893; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 163-164) reported that in
Togoland in 1892 King Kuma had to forbid the locust hunt as it caused the
natives to neglect their fields. Berensberg
(1907) states that one of the greatest pests in South Africa is the
locust, which he identifies as Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata (Serv.) (=
Gryllus devastator): "The
natives of South Africa consider the locusts a very welcome food, and eat them
roasted or dried; the Hottentots and Bushmen welcome the arrival of a swarm,
which gives variety to their menu. . . . They prepare also a fat brown soup of
the eggs."
Stowe (1905: 58-59) notes that:
The
arrival of [a swarm of locusts] was hailed by the Bushmen as a glorious time of
harvest, as they were esteemed excellent and nourishing food. Immense numbers of them were caught,
deprived of their legs and wings, dried in the fire, and then either ground
with a maalklip, that is a flat stone, or one which has been slightly
hollowed in the centre, upon which the dried locusts were reduced to powder by
means of a smaller round one worked with both hands, or pounded in one of the
mortars which have been described as hollowed out of the solid rock and used in
the preparation of grass seeds. . . . The locust-powder was stored in a dry
place, in skin sacks, and kept for future use, when it was made into a kind of
porridge, and also, when mixed with honey, into a sort of cake, which was said
by those who have tasted it to have been far from unpalatable. The nutritious properties of this food were
proved by the fact that during the locust season the Bushmen increased in
flesh, and became rotund and well-conditioned.
Junod (1913) states that the Thonga avenge themselves
on destructive locusts by eating them wholesale:
When a
swarm of these destructive creatures has alighted somewhere in the evening, and
is benumbed by the cool air of the night, the villagers go and collect them in
bags or baskets in great quantities.
The heads, wings and legs are torn off and the bodies roasted on the
embers, or boiled and used as seasoning.
When plentiful, the locusts are dried and crushed in mortars to make a
much appreciated flour. To our taste,
locusts are simply nauseating.
Le Vaillant (1931; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 163) wrote in
January 1782:
Joy
showed itself suddenly on all faces when a cloud of advancing locusts was
sighted, composed of millions of these insects. They passed not much above our heads on a front of almost 1000 m.
continuing for over an hour in such a dense stream that they did fall like hail
upon us. Those of my men who were
accustomed to wild life, enjoyed them and boasted so much about the excellence
of this manna, that I ceded to the temptation to eat them. My prejudices were certainly stronger than
any real cause for aversion, as I could not detect any disagreeable flavour,
and they actually taste like the yellow of a boiled egg [I: 202, 208]. . . .
The Bushmen also dried locusts on mats, removing the wings and legs. As these locust had begun to ferment they
had a very bad smell. The Namaquis had
as their sole provisions some pieces of dried meat and a sack of dried locusts
(II: 100).
Adler (1934) recommended the use of locust meal for
balancing the rations of pigs and poultry, stating that particulars were
obtainable from the Schools of Agriculture in the different provinces. Fodder containing 10% locust meal was also
relished by cattle in tests at the Potchefstrom School of Agriculture. Analysis of red-wing locust nymphs [probably Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata]
just prior to the adult stage showed: moisture 10.5%, protein 46.1%, fat 9.6%,
ash 5%, fiber 12.5%. This compared favorably
with the protein content of the local peanut and coconut oil-cake meal. Adler suggests that locust meal is better
utilized as a feed concentrate than as fertilizer because of its high fat
content. On one farm where locusts had
settled on trees for the night, enough to fill 55 burlap bags were collected in
1 3/4 hours, using a "flame-projecting appliance which works on crude
paraffin." On another farm the
next night, 85 bags were filled, using the same device.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) quoted correspondence from J.C.
Faure that, "wagon-loads of adult migratory locusts are collected,
especially if the females are full of eggs. . . . This applies especially to Locustana
pardalina Walk. and Nomadacris
septemfasciata Serv., but I have no doubt Locusta and Schistocerca
would also be eaten."
Ledger (1987) gives an historical account of South
Africa's efforts to deal with the brown locust, Locustana pardalina,
over the past two centuries. It appears
that the brown locust was in major or minor outbreak in more than 100 of the
190 years between 1797 and 1987.
Chemical controls were introduced between 1900 and 1910. Pre-1900 control measures included,
"trampling the hoppers with herds of livestock; smoke and noise to chase
locusts from crops, while indigenous people used pits filled with grass to
catch hoppers for consumption."
Ledger states:
The man
in the street reads about locusts used for animal feed and for human
consumption and wonders whether any potential for locust control could be found
in the intensive harvesting of the
insects. African tribes have always
utilised locusts for food and the famous South African writer and epicure, C.
Louis Leipoldt, included a recipe in his Cape Cookery book. . . . The logistics
of locust harvesting are formidible, but serious thought is being given to the
harvesting of krill in the Antarctic, where the problems and severe weather
conditions pose far greater constraints than in the Karoo.
Ledger briefly
summarizes recent attempts in S. Africa to harvest the locusts, using
industrial vacuum cleaners.
See also Sparrman (1787), Faure
(1944) and Bryant (1949) in the Introduction.
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Gryllus
(= Grillus) sp.
Junod (1913) mentions that the cricket, Grillus,
known as shiyendlwa, is eaten by some Thonga.
Pyrgomorphidae
Zonocerus
elegans (Thunberg), nymph, adult
Zonocerus elegans (kodi), eaten by the Pedi, is a brightly colored
insect about 3-5 cm in length. It is a
non-swarming locust, but a serious pest of garden plants. There are probably two generations per year
(Quin 1959).
Miscellaneous
Orthoptera
Steyn (1962) described the case history of a 4-year-old
Swazi child who died after eating a single grasshopper of the species, Phymateus
leprosus Fabr. This species is not
eaten by adult Swazis because they know it to be poisonous. Rabbits dosed by stomach-tube with freshly
minced grasshoppers exhibited toxic symptoms of the heart and respiratory
system. It was not determined whether
the toxicity was caused by the insect itself or by toxic plant material that it
had ingested. P. leprosus often
feeds on the leaves of wild cotton or milk-bush (Asclepias fruticosa)
and on Ceylon rose (Nerium oleander), and both plants are active heart
poisons.
References
Cited (An * denotes reference not seen in the original)
Adler,
E. 1934. Nutritive value of locusts. Farming
in S. Afr. 9: 29. (See under
Acrididae)
Backhouse,
J. 1844. Narrative of a Visit to Mauritius and
South Africa. London, p. 584.*
(Miscellaneous Isoptera)
Berensberg,
H. von P. 1907. The uses of insects as food, delicacies, medicines, or in
manufactures. Natal Agric. J. and Mining Rec. 10: 757-762. (Cerambycidae, Miscellaneous Isoptera,
Saturniidae, Acrididae)
Bodenheimer,
F.S. 1951. Insects as Human Food. The Hague: W.
Junk, 352 pp. (Introduction and many
orders and families)
Bryant,
A.T. 1949. The Zulu People as They Were Before
the White Man Came. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Schooter, p. 290. (Introduction)
Cloudsley-Thompson,
J.L. 1953.
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Cumming,
R.G. 1850. Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the
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A.B. 1990. Income, sap yield and effects of sap
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Cunningham,
A.B.; Pieser, S.J. 1991. Primary Health
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Cunningham,
A.B. 1992. [Letters]. Food Insects Newslet. 5(2): 6. (Introduction)
Distant,
W.L. 1904. Insecta Transvaaliensis 1(5):
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Dreyer,
J.J. 1968. Biological assessment of protein
quality: digestibility of the proteins in certain foodstuffs. S. Afr. Med.
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Dreyer,
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Chapter 12 of The
Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource: A Bibliographic Account in Progress,
by Gene R. DeFoliart, posted on website July, 2002
South Africa Table 2.
Palatability of food insects used by the Pedi (Quin 1959).
Order
and Species/Flavor/Popularity
Coleoptera
Polycleis equestris / Indistinct, salty‑nutty / very popular; vies
with meat
Sternocera orissa / Appetizing, fruity‑meat / extremely popular;
preferred to meat
Hymenoptera
Carebara vidua / Pleasant, meaty, somewhat like soft‑shell crab
/ extremely popular; preferred to meat
Lepidoptera
Bombycomorpha pallida / Meaty‑sweet / most popular of all caterpillars
Cerina forda / Indistinct, meaty / extremely popular
Gonimbrasia belina (fresh) / Meaty vegetable / extremely popular; preferred
to meat
Gonimbrasia belina (cured) / Indistinct, meaty / extremely popular;
preferred to the fresh article
Gonometa postica / Fatty, like marrow / extremely popular; preferred to
meat
Gynanisa maia / Wild, meaty / very popular
Herse convolvuli / Appetizing, meaty‑vegetable, somewhat like
asparagus / very popular
Orthoptera
Locustana pardalina / Palatable, sweet, meaty‑vegetable / most popular
of all relishes
Locustana pardalina (legs) / Appetizing, meaty / very popular; relish
concentrate
Zonocerus elegans / Bitter, meaty / popular