Chapter
12
REPUBLIC
OF SOUTH AFRICA
Taxa and life stages consumed
Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)
Sternocera orissa
Buquet, adult
Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)
Plocoederus frenatus (author?),
larva
Stenodontes (Mallodon) downesi (= downesii) Hope, larva
Curculionidae (snout beetles, weevils)
Polycleis equestris Boheman,
adult
Polycleis plumbeus
Guerin, adult
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis (Fabr.), larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) sp., larva
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Oryctes boas Fabr., larva,
occasionally the adult
Oryctes monoceros Ol.,
larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes owariensis
Beauv., larva, occasionally the adult
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Euchosternum delegorguei (= delagorguei) (Spinola), adult
Psyllidae (psyllids)
Psylla sp., sweet
secretion
Apidae (honey bees)
Apid spp., larvae
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua Sm., winged
adult
Hodotermes sp., “nymphs”
Microhodotermes viator
Latr., “flyer nymphs”
Macrotermes swaziae
Fuller, winged adult
Odontotermes (= Termes) badius (Haviland), winged adult
Termes capensis DeGeer, winged
adult
Lasiocampidae (eggar moths, lappets)
Bombycomorpha pallida
Distant, larva
Gonometa postica Walker,
pupa
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea alcinoe (= caffra, caffraria) Stoll, larva
Cirina forda (Westwood),
larva
Gonimbrasia (Conimbrasia, Nudaurelia) belina Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia zambesina
Walker, larva
Gynanisa maia (Klug), larva
Imbrasia epimethea
Drury, larva
Melanocera menippe
(author?), larva
Microgone cana (author?), larva
Urota sinope Westwood (= Cirina
similis), larva
Sphingidae (sphinx or hawk moths)
Agrius (= Herse) convolvuli (Linn.), larva
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville) (= Gryllus devastator), nymph, adult
Locusta sp., adult
Locustana paradalina
(Walker), adult
Schistocerca sp., adult
Gryllidae (crickets)
Gryllus (= Grillus) sp.
Zonocerus elegans
(Thunberg), nymph, adult
Quin (1959) reported the use of 13 species in five
orders in his excellent study of the food habits of the Pedi, one of the Sotho
tribes which in turn is one of several Bantu tribes. The food insect dishes of the Pedi are invariably served as a
relish with their cereal meal porridges.
In preparing the relishes, the insects are used fresh and whole except
for the caterpillar, Gonimbrasia belina, and grasshoppers, some of which
are cured when supplies are plentiful.
The only ingredients added during preparation are salt and water. The insects are stewed dry, then roasted
crisp (except for Bombycomorpha pallida and Cirina forda which
are not roasted). Grasshopper legs are
prepared differently from the other dishes.
The protein content and calories in these relish servings are shown in
South Africa Table 1 (see Quin's pages 230 to 235); according to Quin, all of
the relishes are very popular with many of them preferred to meat (South Africa
Table 2). Quin can be considered a
severe critic relative to flavor; although he studied the Pedi for years and
knew that they thoroughly enjoyed these insects, when he first began sampling
them for himself he repeatedly found it necessary to go outside and retch!
Quin discussed ecological and
acculturation factors whereby the coming of "civilization" wreaked
havoc among the Pedi and concluded that, "the recognition and
encouragement of their traditional foods and feeding habits could be the means
of alleviating, and perhaps even solving, the great problem of malnutrition and
disease among these people."
Relative to insects as a traditional food, Quin states that because of
the general deterioration of vegetation and the loss of locust invasions (the
result of modern control programs to the north), insects have been reduced to a
relatively minor role in the Pedi dietary.
He summarized four general reasons why the Pedi, by 1959, hovered
between bare existence and starvation (see pages 274-275):
A) Restricted
domicile: The Pedi had formerly
inhabited a vast unrestricted area.
When the land became unproductive or grazing became poor they could
move, allowing the land to reestablish productivity. Furthermore, the country teemed with game. The Pedi are now restricted, the game is
virtually exterminated, and the vegetation and top-soil are virtually
destroyed.
B) Indiscriminant
disposal of food supplies: Before the
advent of the European trader the Pedi had no outlet for their beans and
surplus grain, largely kaffir-corn and maize, and it was stored against times
of shortage. The tendency today is to
dispose of the bulk of the food crop "often even at the expense of current
requirements, and what is more, to spend the proceeds on non-essentials like
smart clothing or useless nick-nacks for which the Pedi has developed a great
liking." Thus, food supplies,
disposed of with such prodigality, must be bought back at a premium.
C) Change in
food habits: The "mealie"
replaced the traditional Kaffir-corn as the staple. Induction of much of the male population into industry and away
from their traditional dietary caused many "to acquire new, but not
necessarily better, feeding habits."
Thus, "Simultaneously with civilization the Pedi have developed the
unfortunate tendency of ignoring some of their valuable traditional foods,
adopting cheap inferior European foods -- the only ones they can afford to
buy."
D) Changes
in socio-economic structure: These
changes have been drastic. Efforts of
the individual were formerly focused on the production and acquisition of food,
but are now offered in exchange for money.
Their earning capacity is low and not sufficient to buy food and
the numerous other items that, through civilization, have now become
essentials.
Sparrman (1787, I: 201) mentioned grasshoppers, white
ants (Termes), caterpillars, and other insect larvae among the foods of
the Hottentots. Despite a variety of
wild foods, however, the Bushman is "frequently in want, and famished to
such a degree, as to waste almost to a shadow."
Junod (1962 [original edition 1913?], I: 65; II:
80-83, 334-337) discusses numerous edible insects utilized by the Thonga tribe
(see under appropriate groups below).
Junod states that, "Although the caterpillars, coleoptera, larvae,
and locusts are universally appreciated, there are other 'meats' which appeal
to certain individuals of clans, but are disdainfully eschewed by
others." A number of examples are
given: ". . . .the boa is eaten
with great gusto by the Rongas and disliked by the Nkunas. The same is true of the big varon
lizard. The tortoise is generally
eaten, but the Mpfumu boys, who esteem themselves more civilized, reject it. .
. .Owing to disgust, some people refuse to eat pork. . . .Zulus reject
every kind of fish (nhlampfi) from the same feeling of disgust. . .
.Snails are despised by all the Thongas. . . ." Some other animals are refused because they are taboo, one of
them being a tenebrionid beetle.
Schapera's (1930) observations on the food habits of the
Bushmen and Hottentots are discussed under Botswana and Namibia, respectively.
According to Faure (1944),
locusts, flying termites, and large saturniid larvae are used as food by the
Mapulana, in addition to a pentatomid (see below under Hemiptera for the
latter).
Bryant (1949: 290) cites several earlier publications
for the following information on insect foods of the Zulu:
"The
children, for instance were rather partial to roasted caterpillar, selecting a
huge fat and hairless specimen, which they called iCimbi, and which is the
larva of several kinds of moth, according as it is found on the umuNga,
the umGanu, or other trees.
White-ants or termites, in season, that is, when emerging from the
ground in the flying stage during their breeding season, are greedily gathered
up by the Zulu children and, stripped of their wings, fried, as a great
delicacy, on a pot-lid, they being called iNtlwabusi and iHlwabusi. In former times, in periods of famine,
roasted locust (iziNkumbi) was a godsend to all, and said by Europeans,
who ventured to taste them, to possess the flavour of shrimps. . . ."
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) recorded several species used as
food in South Africa, as communicated to him by Dr. J.C. Faure (discussed below
under their respective families).
According to its authors, Cunningham
and Pieser (1991), the Primary Health Care Booklet was
written for primary health care workers and teachers because knowledge about
traditional wild foods is being lost as it is rarely taught in modern schools.
Meanwhile, malnutrition remains a major problem, one reason being the lack of a
mixed balanced diet. The authors advise, "Do not forget about wild foods
which are available at no cost."
In the booklet, the insects are included in the meat group: amacimbi,
or emperor moth larvae (Saturniidae), mostly Microgone cana, Brunea alcinoe,
and Cirina forda; and izinhlwalbusi, winged adults of the
ant, Carebara vidua. The amacimbi
are noted as a good source of protein and thiamin and an excellent source of
riboflavin and calcium. As meat, amacimbi
can be prepared by either sundrying or roasting, and salt may be added. For adding to soups, amacimbi should
be cleaned, boiled for approximately 2 1/2 hours, steamed dry and fried.
Cunningham (1992) states:
"The
traditional conservation practice of not felling edible wild fruit producing
trees when clearing fields is widespread in Africa, and is a major reason for
maintenance of woody plant cover outside of conservation areas. Some of these trees (e.g., Sclerocarya
birrea [Anacardiaceae]) are also important sources of edible insect larvae
(e.g., Cirina forda [Saturniidae]) feeding on Sclerocarya leaves,
and cerambycid larvae from dead Sclerocarya trees. What is also increasingly widespread is the
social stigma against gathering of wild food resources, which is locally viewed
as `primitive' compared to buying food from the local store. The result is removal of the incentive to
conserve wild fruit bearing trees, and neglect of a nutritionally important food
resource in marginal agricultural areas by often poor communities."
In a 1993 Reuters press dispatch
published in various newspapers (e.g., the Papua New Guinea Post-Courier,
July 30), Anton Ferreira provided coverage of a cocktail party for
delegates attending a meeting of the South African Entomological Society. The snacks were four kinds of insects,
termites, stinkbugs ("a delicacy in Natal"), locusts and mopanie
worms (the latter "widely eaten by Africa's peasant communities, usually
after being dried"). The locusts
were prepared by lightly frying in olive oil with just a hint of crushed
garlic. Another favorite way of cooking
them is with garlic butter and peri peri sauce. Ferreira said the mopanie worms took on the addictive properties
of peanuts, especially after being dipped in sour cream. Marcus Byrne, who masterminded the event,
said the serious message was to educate people that insects are themselves an
important food source. Jan Crafford,
who is researching the role of insects in the diet and folk lore of the Venda
tribe in northern South Africa, was quoted saying, "Some black communities
obtain 80 per cent of their protein from insects."
McCallum (1993) makes several references to edible insect
use among the Venda people. First (p.
86): "When the Venda husband comes for his meal . . . The senior wife will
bring the porridge and a special bowl, much smaller, with the relish of the day
-- caterpillars (very nutritious) or chicken or spinach with onions (moroka),
always with salt in it." Again (p.
147): "The flying ants come out at the rains, and they hatch in
thousands. In Sibasa (Venda) . . . I
remember seeing dozens of young Venda girls running in after the ants, kneeling
down and grabbing them in handfuls, stuffing them into their mouths, not even
waiting for them to die -- wings and all.
They also used to roast these insects."
Coleoptera
The Pedi, according to Quin (1959),
refer to all beetles as dikhunkhwane.
Only the adults are used as food, and before cooking them the elytra are
removed. Quin noted that, in addition
to the use of specific beetles as food, "the Pedi housewife displays no
concern in preparing food from weevil-infested grain or meal and
unceremoniously includes them in her dishes." Quin also noted that although dung beetles are commonly used in
the Far East, "the Pedi abhor the idea of eating the local Scarabaeus
sacar (kgoba-boloko)."
Buprestidae
(metallic woodborers)
Sternocera
orissa Buquet, adult
The buprestid, Sternocera orissa
(lebitsi-kgoma), about 3.5-4.0 cm in length and weighing about 2.6g, is
especially sought after by the Pedi although not commonly found in the vicinity
of the villages. It is collected by
hand in the early morning while the beetles are still lethargic. The host plants are pendoring (Gymnosporia
senegalensis) and witdoring (Acacia campylacantha). There is one generation per year, in the
spring (Quin 1959). Bodenheimer
had earlier reported (1951: 143-144) S. orissa Buq. as being
regularly collected in the Transvaal.
Among the Thonga, Sternocera
orissa, known as shitambela, is roasted by the shepherds and eaten
after first removing the elytra (Junod 1913).
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Plocoederus
frenatus (author?), larva
Stenodontes
(= Mallodon) downesi (= downesii) Hope, larva
Among the Thonga, when the cooks
split the trunks of old half-decayed nkanye trees for kindling wood,
they are careful to lay aside the large white larvae of the cerambycid beetles,
Mallodon downesii, Plocoederus frenatus, and others (Junod
1913): "These enormous white
worms (shipungu) will be fried in their own fat, and served up as a
tit-bit for the ladies on their return to the village." The large white larvae, the shipungwana,
of another cerambycid which dig channels in the stems of nkanye, nkuhlu,
mphesa, etc., are also readily eaten.
The larva of Mallodon downesi
is esteemed by the kafir (Berensberg 1907). Concerning this species, Distant (1904; vide Duffy
1957, p. 54) notes that "natives eat the young larvae after roasting them
on twigs." See also Cunningham
(1992) in the Introduction.
Curculionidae
(snout beetles, weevils)
Polycleis
equestris Boheman, adult
Polycleis
plumbeus Guerin, adult
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis (Fabr.), larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) sp., larva
Polycleis equestris and P. plumbeus, 1.25-1.85 cm in length, are
eaten by the Pedi (Quin 1959).
The host plant is witdoring, and the weevils are collected by hand. There is one generation per summer,
according to the Pedi.
The Thonga readily eat the larvae of
a large Calandra sp. which swarm in the stems of the palm trees of the
marsh (Junod 1913).
During a study of palm wine yields (Cunningham
1990), palm stems were occasionally infested by larvae of Rhynchophorus
phoenicis and an unidentified scarabaeid beetle. This results in cessation of sap flow but was insignificant to
total yield, affecting only 0.3% of stems tapped.
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Oryctes
boas Fabr., larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes
monoceros Ol., larva, occasionally the adult
Oryctes
owariensis Beauv., larva, occasionally the adult
Bodenheimer (1951: 186), without attributing a source, states
that the larvae and, occasionally adults, of Oryctes boas F., O.
owariensis Beauv., and O. monoceros Ol. are eaten in South Africa.
Tenebrionidae
(darkling beetles)
The tenebrionid beetle, Psammodes
bertoloni, known as shifufuni sha paripari, is taboo among the
Thonga although other coleopterans are eaten (Junod 1913).
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Euchosternum
delegorguei (= delagorguei) (Spinola),
adult
Faure (1944) discussed the use of the hemipteran, Euchosternum
delagorguei, known as thosono (plural dithsonono), by the
Mapulana in the Pilgrimsrest district of the eastern Transvaal. This insect is highly esteemed even though
it emits a fluid that, unless avoided, severly burns the eyes. It is a large bug, 24-27 mm long and 13-15
mm wide. They appear only in the winter
season, from April to July, and there is only one generation per year. Nothing is known about the nymphal
stages. The adults occur in
aggregations that swarm during the day, settling again as evening approaches on
a variety of trees and brushy plants including among others the
"kaffer-wag-nbietjie" thorn (Acacia ataxacantha var. australis). They are collected at sundown or early in
the morning, or on misty, cloudy days.
Faure describes how the "poison" of the stink-gland is
eliminated (sometimes perfunctorily apparently) and how the bugs are prepared
for eating. They are sometimes eaten
raw, but usually they are cooked and eaten either with porridge or alone.
Homoptera
Psyllidae
(psyllids)
Psylla sp., sweet secretion
David Livingstone (1857: 164) reported a species of Psylla
on the leaves of the mopané-tree (Genus Bauhinia) in Bushmen
country near Maila. The people collect
the sweet gummy secretion of this scale insect in great quantities and use it
as food.
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
The Thonga appreciate the bees, or nyoshi,
for their honey, and eat the larva or shipungwa with as much pleasure as
the honey itself (Junod 1913).
Formicidae
(ants)
Carebara
vidua Sm., winged adult
The Pedi refer to both ants and
termites as ditshoswane (Quin 1959). The large female flying sexuals of the ant, Carebara vidua,
nearly 2 cm long, are called dintlhwa makhura, while the males, equally
long but less heavy, are called dintlhwa bogwale. There are three or four generations per year
and they are collected by hand as they emerge from the ground after heavy
rains. According to Quin, they play an
important role in the Pedi dietary and it is unfortunate that they are
procurable only five or six times per year.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) had earlier mentioned that the
females and possibly males of C. vidua Sm. are regularly collected in
the Transvaal.
See also Cunningham and Peiser
(1991) in the Introduction.
Isoptera
Hodotermitidae
Hodotermes sp., "nymphs"
Microhodotermes
viator Latr., "flyer nymphs"
Fuller (1918; vide Phelps et al 1975) reported that
human fatalities resulted from eating nearly mature nymphs of Hodotermes.
In Namaqualand, "flyer-nymphs"
are dug from the nests of Microhodotermes viator Latr.; they resemble
rice-grains when cooked, and this is presumed to be the origin of the Afrikaan
name for termite, rysmier, or rice-ant (Bodenheimer 1951:
143-144).
Termitidae
Macrotermes
swaziae Fuller, winged adult
Odontotermes (= Termes) badius (Haviland), winged
adult
Termes
capensis DeGeer, winged adult
According to Quin (1959),
the flying sexuals of Termes badius, which are approximately 1.25 cm
long, are referred to as lekeke.
There are several generations per year.
They appear after heavy rains in the summer and are collected as they
emerge from the ground.
Sparrman (1787: 307) noted that the food of elderly
fugitive Bushmen consists in great measure of termites. Among the termites eaten is Termes
capensis De Geer (pp. 361-364) and they are either boiled in the same
manner as grasshoppers or eaten raw.
Sparrman comments on the vast numbers of these soft, milk-white,
large-winged insects. He was informed
that when these termites were available, the Bushmen and other Hottentots soon
grew fat and in good condition from eating them.
Regarding termites, Simmonds
(1885: 370-371) quotes a Capt. Carmichael as follows:
One
evening, it was I think about the middle of May, as we sat enjoying ourselves
at dinner, we observed a number of flies of an uncommon aspect, flitting past
the tent. We started up and endeavoured
to catch one of them, but without effect.
Some Hottentot children, who were standing on an opposite bank,
remarking our anxiety, came and offered us whole handfuls of them, and
directing us to the spot where they had caught them; our astonishment is not to
be expressed when we beheld millions of winged insects issuing into daylight
from fissures in the earth, and through the pores as it were of the ground
where no opening was perceptible. Near
these outlets the children had posted themselves, and collecting the insects as
they emerged, greedily devoured them.
Such of them as escaped the Hottentots were snapped up as they flew
along by the small birds and by the Libellulae [dragonflies] and other
predatory flies. The body of these tiny
insects is so small and the wings are so large and unwieldy, that they could
hardly support themselves in the air, as they floated along at the humour of
the breeze. They were the males of the Termes
capensis, commonly known as the white ant.
Bodenheimer (1951: 143-144) mentioned that winged sexuals of
Macrotermes swaziae Fuller are regularly collected in the Transvaal.
Miscellaneous
Isoptera
Backhouse (1844: 584; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 155),
referring to the Hottentots, remarked on the resemblance of flying white ants
and their "pupae" to rice grains, and described them as quite
palatable. A large nest sometimes
yields a bushel of "pupae."
The Hottentots utilize them after their corn supply is consumed. Backhouse noted that when Hottentots were
able to find termites in abundance, they soon became fat, even when previously
reduced by hunger.
Stowe (1905: 58-59) states, regarding the
Bushmen: "The most abundant
supplies of insect food were derived from the innumerable ant-hills found in
the country, and in the early days the almost periodical visits of vast swarms
of locusts." Stowe continues:
The
Bushman-rice, as it was termed by the Dutch, or chrysalides of white ants
obtained from the ants' nests, was merely gathered in such quantities as
sufficed for daily use. This Bushman
rice was called 'Kasu' by the Bushmen themselves. To obtain a supply, the nest was opened with
a digging stick, called 'Kibi.'
The 'eggs' were then taken out and placed upon a small grass mat, made
expressly for the purpose, and which was used as a sieve. The 'eggs' were then properly sorted, and placed
in a small grass basket or skin bag, and the process was continued until a
sufficient quantity was obtained. They
were then taken to the cave or camp, when they were placed on the fire, on a
flat stone with a little fat, and roasted until they were brown, when they were
considered fit for use.
According to Bodenheimer (1951:
142), Moffat reported that termites cooked in butter, and caterpillars, grilled
and roasted, are consumed. According to
Berensberg (1907), the Hottentots eat termites both boiled and
raw, while the Indians in Natal eat the flying termites after removing the
wings.
According to Junod (1913),
one of the favorite insect dishes of the Thonga is provided by the winged white
ants or termites which emerge around Christmas by the thousands. The soldiers are collected by inserting
grasses, smeared with glue, into the holes.
The heads are eaten and the bodies thrown into a calabash to season the
evening meal. To collect the winged
forms, a hole is dug in the termite mound and an old pot is placed in the
bottom of the hole. The expected exit
hole is covered with green branches which prevent the termites from flying when
they emerge. Those which happen to
emerge under the covering of branches fall into the pot which becomes full
within a few hours. Many of those which
do not emerge under the branches fall prey to birds and toads.
See also Sparrman (1787), Faure
(1944), Bryant (1949) and McCallum (1993) in the Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Lasiocampidae
(eggar moths, lappets)
Bombycomorpha
pallida Distant, larva
Gonometa
postica Walker, pupa
Caterpillars are referred to
collectively as diboko by the Pedi (Quin 1959). The larva of Bombycomorpha pallida (ngwana
mamahlwehlwana) is about 3.0 cm in length and has one generation per year,
according to Quin. This species occurs
in the winter, whereas all other lepidopterous larvae become available during
the summers.
The edible pupae of Gonometa
postica (mmakonokono) are 3.75 cm in length and enclosed in a tough
parchment-like cocoon. Host plants of
the larva, which is not eaten by the Pedi, are witdoring, huilbos (Peltophorum
africanum), and pendoring. The
cocoons occur on twigs of the host plants.
There is apparently one generation per year, normally during January and
February, according to Quin (1959).
Zumpt (1971) reported an outbreak of rumen impaction
among cattle that resulted from ingestion of cocoons of Gonometa postica (Walker). Several hundred animals were reported to
have died. Zumpt described symptoms and
autopsy findings. Affected animals were
in poor to extremely poor condition, stunted in growth and pot-bellied. In three cases studied in which rumenotomies
were performed, the rumen contained a single mass of impacted ingesta, the mass
weighing 45, 71 and 82 lbs, respectively.
The average weight in 41 cases in which the impactions were removed
operatively was 34 lbs. In each case
the impaction was a solid interwoven mass of ingesta particles adhering to fine
silken threads. The age of affected animals
ranged from seven months to four years, the majority being 1-2 years old. Attempts to dissolve the masses with
surface-reducing and other agents were unsuccessful; removal of the impactions
was the only remedy.
Zumpt concluded from the case
histories that the cocoons are ingested during the weaning stage. Calves are normally kraaled-off under thorn
trees. The caterpillars of G.
postica, which appear shortly after the first summer rains, live on thorn
trees, especially black thorn and camel thorn.
Their cocoons are about 5 x 2 cm in size and are covered with tiny,
short, black spicules. Counts done in
calf-kraals indicated that more than 60% of the pupae in the cocoons had been
parasitized. Peak parasitization of
cocoons was also noted in the 1934 outbreak involving G. rufobrunnea
(Edwards 1935). Zumpt suggests that
parasitized cocoons probably dry out quickly and thus break off easily during
spring winds. Calves, which pick up and
lick many foreign objects during the weaning period, thus come into contact
with large numbers of cocoons.
Collection of all cocoons in weaning kraals prior to occupation appears
to be the only practical prophylactic measure.
Zumpt states that destruction of the caterpillars, cocoons or moths
would be an enormous task and probably impractical.
Edwards (1935) reported losses of cattle from rumen
impaction in the Northern Transvaal caused by the ingestion of cocoons of Gonometa
rufobrunnea Auriv. The outbreak
lasted two seasons and occurred when parasitization of cocoons was at its peak.
Saturniidae
(giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea
alcinoe (= caffra, caffraria)
Stoll, larva
Cirina
forda (Westwood), larva
Gonimbrasia (= Conimbrasia, Nudaurelia) belina
Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia
zambesina Walker, larva
Gynanisa
maia (Klug), larva
Imbrasia
epimethea Drury, larva
Melanocera
menippe (author?), larva
Microgone
cana (author?), larva
Urota
sinope Westwood (= Cirina similis),
larva
The large, pretty caterpillars of
the saturniid, Gonimbrasia belina (notoleetsana) are 8-10 cm in
length and are known as masonja or "mopanie worms" by the Pedi
(Quin 1959). In Pedi territory
where the mophane (Copaifera mopane) is exotic, host plants are confined
to Sclerocarya caffra and Burkea africana. There are one to three generations per
year. The larvae are ready for
harvesting approximately three weeks after emergence and are available for
three to four weeks before they pupate in the soil around the base of the host
plant. The caterpillars grip the host
plant tightly and cannot be shaken off; they must be picked by hand. According to Quin, a good picker in an average
infestation can collect 18 kg (40 lb) of larvae per hour.
These caterpillars have been fairly
extensively commercialized. In areas
where they occur in profusion and are bulk-dried, they are first eviscerated
(methods are described by Quin), the rate of evisceration being about 7.3kg (16
lb) of caterpillars per person per hour.
They are then roasted for 15 minutes, then spread out to dry, which
requires about 43 hr for the product to become sufficiently dry for
storage. According to Quin, all three methods
of evisceration are wasteful as a large proportion of fat is discarded along
with the waste. The gut is removed
mainly to eliminate the resin-flavored mopanie leaves that have been ingested. [Author's note: The waste associated with eviscerating could possibly be
eliminated by starving the collected caterpillars for a few hours and then
curing them whole, as is done with caterpillars in some other parts of
Africa.] Quin recorded a weight loss of
84% during the processing and drying of larvae.
Quin mentions that a trader informed
him that he alone handled more than 1000 32 kg (70 lb) bags of these
caterpillars per year. Also, according
to Quin, when given a choice the Pedi prefers 1/4 lb (114 g) of these caterpillars
to 1 lb (454 g) of fresh beef. Further,
a local trading business provided the information that these caterpillars, when
available, seriously affect the sale of beef.
Quin states that probably the only feasible way of meeting the demand
for insect foods is to expand the masonja industry, not only in the
Northern Transvaal but in adjoining Bechuanaland (now Botswana) and Zimbabwe.
The caterpillars of Gynanisa maia
(legakgale) are 8-10 cm long when fully grown (Quin 1959). Host plants include witdoring, huilbos, and
pendoring. The larvae are collected by
hand early in the morning, as they tend to move to the top of the tree during
the heat of the day. There is one
generation per year. The caterpillars of
Cirina forda (noto) are about 6.0-7.5 cm long; the host plant is
wild sering (Burkea africana) and there is one generation per year.
Dreyer (1968) determined protein digestibilities of 135
foodstuffs in trials with young albino rats.
The digestibility of mopani-worm meal (Gonimbrasia belina), which
is eaten as a delicacy in considerable quantities by most rural Bantu tribes,
was only 78.3%. Previous work by A.S.
Wehmeyer (unpublished data) had found the amino acid composition of dried
mopani worms to be relatively complete with high proportions of lysine and
tryptophan (which are limiting in maize protein) and of methionine (limiting in
legume seed proteins). Absorption of
some nitrogenous components may be reduced by the presence of chitin in insect
tissues. Other foods with protein
digestibilities generally below 80% include dried beans, kaffircorn, and two
other traditional Bantu foods (marogo and Bantu beer).
According to Dreyer and Wehmeyer
(1982), the South African Bureau of Standards estimates annual sales of
mopanie caterpillars, G. belina, through agricultural cooperative
markets at about 40,000 bags, each containing 40 kg of traditionally prepared,
dried caterpillars. This amounts to
1600 metric tons entering reported channels of commerce, but one would presume
that this is only a fraction of the volume actually consumed. There is now a mopanie worm cannery at
Pietersburg in the northern Transvaal.
Dreyer and Wehmeyer analyzed two kinds of mopanie material: 1) Traditionally prepared, in which the intestinal contents are squeezed out by hand, with the remainder being dried by exposure to sunlight (the drying process is sometimes accelerated by placing the material on a metal plate over an open fire), and 2) Canned material, prepared from dried caterpillars which had been soaked in water overnight but to which no condiments had been added. The soaking water was discarded, and the material then steamed, can