Chapter 13
Taxa and life stages consumed
Sternocera
funebris
(author?), adult
Sternocera
orissa
Buquet, adult
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida) anatine (author?), adult
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida) masnona (author?), adult
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida)nitidicollis (author?), adult
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Euchosternum
(= Haplosterna; = Encosternum) delegorguei (Spinola) (= delagorguei), adult
Pentascelis
remipes
(author?), adult
Pentascelis
wahlbergi
(author?), adult
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Loba
leopardina (author?)
Apidae
(honey bees)
Trigona
spp., larvae
Formicidae
(ants)
Carebara
vidua
Sm., winged adult
Macrotermes
falciger
Gerstacker (= goliath), winged
adult, soldier, queen
Macrotermes
natalensis Haviland
Lasiocampidae
(eggar moths, lappets)
Lasiocampid sp.,
larva
Limacodidae
(slug caterpillars)
Limacodid sp.
Notodontidae
(prominents)
Anaphe
panda
(Boisdv.), larva
Saturniidae
(giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea
(= Bunea) alcinoe (Stoll), larva
Bunaea
sp., larva
Cirina
forda
(Westwood), larva
Gonimbrasia
belina Westwood,
larva
Goodia
kuntzei
Dewitz (?), larva
Gynanisa sp. (?), larva
Imbrasia
epimethea
Drury, larva
Imbrasia
ertli
Rebel, larva
Lobobunaea sp., larva
Microgone sp., (?), larva
Pseudobunaea sp. (?), larva
Sphingidae
(sphinx or hawk-moths)
Agrius
(= Herse) convolvulus (Linn.), larva
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Acanthacris
(= Acanthracis) ruficornis (Fabr.)
Acrida
bicolor (Thunberg)
Cyathosternum spp.
Cyrtacanthacris
(= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville), nymph,
adult
Locusta
migratoides (author?), adult
Locusta
migratoria (Linn.), adult
Ornithacris
cyanea (Stoll),
adult
Truxaloides
constrictus (Schaum)
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Acheta
sp.
Brachytrupes
(= Brachytrypes) membranaceus Drury, adult
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa
(= Curtillia) africana (author?)
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia
(= Homorocoryphus) differens (= nitidulus)(author?)
Jackson (1954: 64-66) listed 25 vernacular names
for insects in four orders that are consumed by natives in various parts of the
country: Coleoptera (beetles), nyenze,
mandere, gumbukumbu or gakata; Hymenoptera (ants, but some of the
names appear to apply to termites), majuru,
shwa or hwa or iswa, tsangarapfuta
or tsangarafuta; Lepidoptera
(caterpillars), mashonja, harati,
madora, pferepfe, nhowa, masenda,
ndambakurayira, ndanjeranje, nhongotowa; Orthoptera (locusts,
general names = mashu or whiza), bambomukota
or bombomukota,hanganwa, mhotanegwenzi,
borimori, mamunye, munjepunje, madzomba, tsunwa; (crickets), gurgwe,
ndororo.
Gelfand (1971: 1-7) gives a concise and excellent
critique of African diets as influenced by tradition and the European attitude.
Gelfand discussed a number of insect species that are included in the diet of
the Shona (pp. 163-171) and the percentage of the population that
includes them (pp. 194-199). His information is summarized below under
specific insect orders.
Gelfand
(pp. 194-199) described previously unpublished studies which revealed the
degree to which insects are included in the diets of different segments of
Shona society. In recording data from people admitted to Harare Hospital which
draws mainly a large urban population, Gelfand found that most of the patients
with nutritional diseases came from rural areas, and more came from European
farms (laborers) than from urban areas. Similarly, of 30 cases of classical
kwashiorkor admitted to his care, 17 were from rural areas, 9 from European
farms and 4 were urban. As a result of these observations, a study was
conducted to determine the frequency with which first class protein was
consumed (Zimbabwe Table 1; see Gelfand's Table 3, p. 196) by the different
groups: Grade I, very good, first class protein daily with each main meal;
Grade II, good, first class protein at least three days a week with the main
meal; Grade III, fair, first class protein once or twice a week; Grade IV,
poor, no first class protein during the week. The diet in the rural areas and
on European farms again appeared to be less adequate, in general, than in urban
areas.
In
a follow-up survey, Gelfand inquired of urban and rural Shona as to
whether they still ate the more "unusual" types of protein such as
mice, caterpillars and flying ants, and whether the traditional avoidance of
eggs was being maintained. The results (Zimbabwe Table 2; see Gelfand's Tables
5 and 6, page 198) showed that in both rural and urban areas, the Shona still
eat mice, caterpillars and flying ants (termites) and that the latter seemed to
be the most popular. Although the majority, mostly women, admitted to eating
eggs, this was done only occasionally and eggs are not yet an important source
of protein in the Shona diet.
Chavunduka (1975)
briefly discusses many insects that are included in the Shona diet although he
states that his list is not comprehensive. He notes that a decline in insect
populations is imminent as the result of ecological changes involving bush
clearance for settlement and agriculture and the consequent disappearance of
many indigenous trees and grasses on which the insects feed, and secondly as
the result of the use of insecticides. Species discussed by Chavunduka are
arranged below under their respective insect orders. Vernacular names, except
where otherwise indicated, are Shona terms.
Chavunduka concluded that insects are the cheapest source of animal
protein for the poor rural communities and urges that their use as food should
be encouraged. In his opinion, insects have averted many potential cases of
kwashiorkor in the remote rural areas.
The
following interesting culinary event was reported in a 1988 Zimbabwe newspaper
article datelined Domboshawa, Zimbabwe:
White ants were out of season, but
caterpillars, locusts and flying ants substituted nicely in a contest for cooks
demonstrating how to feed a family of five for less than a dollar. First prize was a bicycle. The piece
de resistance was sauteed matsimbi, yellow and black caterpillars
four inches long, served with the national staple called sadza, a ground corn
cooked into a stiff porridge.
Zhinji Nyikadzino won the bicycle
for a stew of home-grown greens, tomatoes and onions seasoned with dovi, a
version of peanut butter, and served with the ubiquitous sadza. She accompanied
it with a nutritious drink made of rapoko greens.
Relative
to possible efforts toward greater development of food insect resources in
Zimbabwe, DeFoliart (1989) quoted from a 1987 personal
communication from Professor R.J. Phelps (University of Zimbabwe): "The
time may well be ripe in this country. . . . Certainly, dried caterpillars of
saturniid moths are sold on the local market, and consumption of termites,
locusts and tettigoniids by the vast majority of the population continues in
spite of the presence of western cultures.
In fact, many people of European background eat termites here, although
not in the quantities that the local people do."
Wilson (1989: 2-6)
states that gathered wild foods play a daily role in rural diets in southern
Africa and are most important for making the relish that accompanies the
characteristic stiff cereal porridge. The
great miombo forest region extending from Angola across Zambia to Mozambique
and down into Zimbabwe has two peculiarly valuable food resources, mushrooms
and caterpillars. Where the forest
remains these provide an important relish during the rains and are dried for
use later in the year. In the deforested
areas the tree-associated mushrooms disappear, except those symbiotic with
termite species (mainly Termitomyces
spp.) which remain important. In the
deforested areas several caterpillar species that consume grasses and herbs,
and certain edible crickets and other orthopterans are regularly consumed. For example, the sphingid moth caterpillar, Herse convulvuli, which feeds on weeds of
the genus Convulvulus is abundant
in southern Zimbabwe. Brachytrupes membranaceus is the most
common cricket eaten, but there are several others as well as many types of
grasshoppers. The katydid, Ruspolia
differens deserves special mention as it has been swarming across
southern Africa in recent years.
Wilson
mentions that although fungi are less common outside of the miombo region,
several species of caterpillars, notably the 'mopane-worm' (Gonimbrasia belina), are very important in
the semi-arid regions. This species is generally common, although its
populations fluctuate wildly, wherever there are extensive areas of its host
tree Colophospermum mopane, which
is most common in lower and drier areas.
Very substantial urban markets exist for fungi and caterpillars in the
towns all over the region. Regional
international trade in caterpillars has a long history, and a number of large
industrial concerns have more recently started to deal in dried and tinned
caterpillars. Jassbro Ltd. operates out
of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe, and in mid-1986 was charging Z$6/kg of dried caterpillars
(equivalent at that time to UKŁ2.50). A few other insects are mentioned by
Wilson, including flying ants (termites) which are a major protein and fat
source for people during the early rains, and various beetles, bugs
(hemipterans) and locusts which are of local seasonal value.
Relative
to agro-ecological changes resulting in shifts in the species composition of
wild food resources, Wilson states (pp. 18-19):
"Deforestation, for example, leads to dramatic losses in edible
caterpillars and fungi. Yet the
grasslands and the fields that replace them support some different types of
caterpillars, more grasshoppers and crickets, and more grazing mammals,
including buck, rodents and hares."
Wilson (1990)
notes, relative to the nutritional value of insects used as food in Zimbabwe,
that a number of the species eaten in large quantities have a very high fat
content. The importance of this is that
people living on a predominantly millet diet take in even less fat than those
living predominantly on maize. Most of
the insects are consumed opportunistically, especially by children, and only
when a species is temporarily abundant is it gathered for use as a relish. Wilson (pp. 567-581, 620-622) provides
information on local names, food plants or vegetation association, ecological
zones, seasonal occurrence and present status of many Zimbabwe edible species,
some of which is summarized below under the appropriate orders and families.
As
part of a study in the Shurugwi Communal Area on the effect of deforestation on
strategies of woodland use and management in Zimbabwe's communal areas, McGregor (1991:
265-271) provides information on edible insects similar to that by Wilson and
on many of the same species (see under the appropriate taxa below). McGregor
concludes that past land use policy has had a lasting and detrimental effect on
woodland cover in the study area, and she states (p. 1):
Centralised institutions and the
authority of science have contributed to the devaluation of local
understandings and the underappreciation of the dynamism of use
strategies. Planning has persistently
been based on misunderstandings of savanna ecology and the way it is used. . .
. In contrast with state interventions, local strategies for coping with
environmental change can be highly effective in resource conservation. Many changes in resource use, however, are
rooted not in physical scarcity but in broader political, economic and
lifestyle changes, and in a desire for modernity. State agents have an increased role in determining
woodland usufruct in the study area.
There has been a decline in the authority of spirit guardianship of
woodlands and an increase in the use of privitised resources.
McGregor agrees with Wilson that although
insect populations dependent on woodland, such as most caterpillars, are
diminishing in dietary importance, other insect populations are increasingly
important, particularly those favoring arable and disturbed ground. Of four
species now widely marketed, there are two in each category, two species of
caterpillars, a cricket and a katydid (see under the appropriate taxa).
Coleoptera
Buprestidae (metallic
woodborers)
Sternocera funebris (Author?), adult
Sternocera orissa
Buquet, adult
Two
buprestid beetles, Sternocera funebris
and S. orissa, known as magakata are collected in the Spring,
similarly to, but in lesser numbers than the Christmas beetle described below (Gelfand 1971). The head, wings and legs are
discarded before preparation.
According
to Chavunduka, S. funebris and S. orissa are known as zvigakata,
rumagotsi, or dandaruma.
The larvae feed on Brachystegia spiciformis,
B. tamarindoides, and Julbernardia
globiflora.
Scarabaeidae (scarab
beetles)
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
anatina (author?),
adult
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
masnona (author?), adult
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
nitidicollis (author?), adult
Eulepida masnona [or mashona
as spelled by Chavunduka?], which is a crop pest, is known as the Christmas
beetle, mandere or chafer, and is eaten as a relish (Gelfand 1971). The beetles emerge from the
ground at the beginning of the rains in summer and are found on the leaves of
the young munhondo and musasa trees. The women collect the
beetles by hand and remove the legs before putting them into baskets. After
being washed they are grilled; when cooked to about half their original size, a
little water and salt are added and they are grilled a little longer.
According
to Chavunduka, three chafer
beetles are used, Eulepida anatina
and E. nitidicollis, in addition
to E. mashona. All are known as mandere.
Their food trees are B. spiciformis and J. globiflora. The chafer beetles are collected by spreading
a white cloth under the tree and shaking the tree vigorously. The beetles are
collected early in the morning when they are less active. Wilson
(1990) mentions the species (as Eulepidida masnona) as common.
Miscellaneous Coleoptera.
See Jackson (1954) and Wilson (1989) in
the Introduction.
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Euchosternum (= Haplosterna;
= Encosternum) delegorguei (Spinola) (= delagorguei),
adult
Pentascelis remipes (author?), adult
Pentascelis wahlbergi (author?), adult
Mjele (1934)
reported that the harugwa, or Haplosterna delagorguei is a highly prized
delicacy among the natives of the Bikita district who prefer them to either the
brown or red locusts. The harugwa arrive
in a dense mass from unknown breeding grounds apparently to the south and
usually toward the end of the rainy season. They feed on the leaves of wild
loquat trees which occur in dense groves in the area. The insects, which have a
strong musk-like odor, are prepared by first steeping them in hot water
to kill them. Pressure is then applied to the thorax to remove a certain
secretion which is unpleasant to the palate. They are then roasted on an open fire
and placed on a granite out-crop to dry. They are usually eaten with
other food, only "gourmands" eating them as a separate dish.
According to Mjele, the harugwa
continue from April to September, when, with the approach of the rains, they
fly southward.
According
to Cuthbertson (1934), Haplosterna
delegorguei (Spinola) is one of 10 species of pentatomids that have
the habit of congregating in enormous numbers in Zimbabwe. They appear in
swarms on certain trees (Mahobohobo
or Uapaca sp.) in March or April
in the Belingwe and Bikita districts and are the cause of serious quarrels
among the natives of neighboring kraals who use them as food.
Chavunduka states that, in the Bikita district, Encosternum delegorguei (harurwa) is much sought after and can be bartered
for qrain. The species is mentioned as
common by Wilson (1990). According to Chavunduka, Pentascelis remipes (magodo) feed on Combretum molle and C. imberbe (mugodo) and are a delicacy
among the Manyika and Ndau tribes. P.
wahlbergi (nharara) feed on Gardenia
resiniflua (mutara) and occur in clusters.
Miscellaneous Hemiptera.
A
common "bug" associated with Gardenia
spatulifolia trees and known as nharara,
and another "bug" known as bembere
and associated with Combretum sollis
and C. fragrans are mentioned by Wilson (1990). See also Wilson (1989) in the
Introduction.
Homoptera
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Loba leopardina (author?)
Loba leopardina (nyenze) feeds on Albizia antunesiana muriranyenze) (Chavunduka 1975). Nyenje
(= nyenze) is mentioned by Wilson (1990)
as common.
Hymenoptera
Apidae (bees)
Trigona spp., larvae
Gelfand discusses the collection and use of honey produced both
by Apis sp., called nyuchi by the Shona, and by several
species of Trigona bees, known as
monga, hwadza, mwanda, mbadzi, nhona, and kanyira. From Gelfand's discussion (pp. 163-164) it is
not clear whether the Shona use bee brood as food. Three kinds of hive are
recognized which are called mukuyo
(honeycombs), the machinda (bee
pupae), and the pfuma (royal
jelly). Gelfand states, "Only the mukuyo honey is taken home, that from the machinda hive is either eaten on the spot
or thrown away and that from the pfuma
eaten there and then." A cake-like mass made from honey boiled with
millet, and called chihungwe, is
eaten as a delicacy or may be taken to other villages and sold or bartered for
grain.
Wilson (1990)
discusses honey gathering and also possible factors affecting the changing
abundance of honey-producing insects.
Although he makes no direct mention of bee brood being consumed, such is
implied by his statement that:
"Honey, however, contributes only carbohydrates [to the diet],
except to the extent that larvae, etc. are also consumed."
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua Sm., winged adult
Gelfand notes that the tree ant, Carebara vidua, known as tsambarapfuta,
emerges from anthills for only a few days when rain comes. It is eaten as a
relish. According to Chavunduka, C. vidua (tsambarafuta), the "flying
ant" is often collected by the young and may be eaten raw. Wilson
(1990) mentions it (alate females)
as common in the rainy season. Also see
Jackson (1954) in the Introduction.
Isoptera
Termitidae
Macrotermes falciger Gerstacker (= goliath), winged adult, soldier, queen
Macrotermes natalensis
Haviland
Gelfand (p. 168) refers to the ishwa
and majuru of Jackson as the
flying adults and soldiers, respectively, of Macrotermes
goliath. The flying adults
appear in the summer at the beginning of the rains, usually in December, and
Gelfand describes the collecting procedure:
In order to gather them the men dig
a small hole into the anthill, large enough to insert a small claypot about ten
inches high. The pot has a little hole in its bottom communicating with the
earth below. Several small sticks are laid across the top, covered with leaves
of the gumbakumba bush (Eriosema shirense). All other holes in the
anthill are sealed to force the ants to enter the pot to which they are
attracted by the daylight or moonlight shining into it. When they come through
the opening of the pot just after dark the women and children catch them in
their hands. . . . When the woman has filled a calabash with them she closes
the opening with grass and takes home her spoil.
The termites are grilled with a little
salt added, winnowed to remove the wings, and served as a relish with the
porridge.
Chavunduka mentions Macrotermes
falciger (ishwa) soldiers and winged adults as food. The soldiers
are collected by opening out the mouth of the nest and inserting long blades of
grass or split reeds into the tunnel. The soldiers clamp into the grass with
their large mandibles. The grass is withdrawn and the soldiers are shaken into
a collecting vessel. As described by Chavunduka, the flying adults are
collected as follows:
A trench is dug on the slope of the
anthill in such a way that the mouth of the nest is at the highest point. A
wide mouthed earthen pot, with water, is placed at the lower end of the trench.
The trench is roofed over with grass except for a small window which admits a
little light at the bottom end. As the termites leave the nest they fly to the
bottom of the trench where they are trapped and collected in the earthen
vessel.
For eating they are roasted in the earthen
pot. Chavunduka cites studies on weanling rats by S.J.L. Moyo as evidence that
termites (M. falciger) are a rich
source of lysine and therefore are a good supplement to the maize meal in the
traditional African diet.
Cmelik (1969a) reported that lipid content averaged 25% in both male and female alate Macrotermes goliath on a fresh weight basis. Moisture content was 47%, so lipid content on a dry basis was 47%. Size of both sexes ranged from 180-280 mg; based on the average weight of 250 mg, lipid content averaged 60 mg per termite. Semi-quantitative determinations showed about 60% of the total body lipids contained in the fat body, 6% in thoracic muscle, 5% in the gut, 5% in the reproductive organs, 2% in the head, and 22% in other parts of the body. All organs contained the same fatty acids, C16:0, C18:0, C18.1, and C18:2, in variable proportions, but C18:1 was the predominant fatty acid in all organs. Quantitative determinations of free and esterified cholesterol were carried out on the neutral lipid portion of the total body lipids (Zimbabwe Table 3; see Cmelik's Table 3, p. 845), and the low percentages for alates are due, according to Cmelik, to the presence of the very large fat bodies which contain very little cholesterol. Soldier termites yielded a low content of cholesterol esters while workers were exceptiona