Chapter 13
Taxa and life stages consumed
Sternocera
funebris
(author?), adult
Sternocera
orissa
Buquet, adult
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida) anatine (author?), adult
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida) masnona (author?), adult
Lepidiota
(= Eulepida)nitidicollis (author?), adult
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Euchosternum
(= Haplosterna; = Encosternum) delegorguei (Spinola) (= delagorguei), adult
Pentascelis
remipes
(author?), adult
Pentascelis
wahlbergi
(author?), adult
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Loba
leopardina (author?)
Apidae
(honey bees)
Trigona
spp., larvae
Formicidae
(ants)
Carebara
vidua
Sm., winged adult
Macrotermes
falciger
Gerstacker (= goliath), winged
adult, soldier, queen
Macrotermes
natalensis Haviland
Lasiocampidae
(eggar moths, lappets)
Lasiocampid sp.,
larva
Limacodidae
(slug caterpillars)
Limacodid sp.
Notodontidae
(prominents)
Anaphe
panda
(Boisdv.), larva
Saturniidae
(giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea
(= Bunea) alcinoe (Stoll), larva
Bunaea
sp., larva
Cirina
forda
(Westwood), larva
Gonimbrasia
belina Westwood,
larva
Goodia
kuntzei
Dewitz (?), larva
Gynanisa sp. (?), larva
Imbrasia
epimethea
Drury, larva
Imbrasia
ertli
Rebel, larva
Lobobunaea sp., larva
Microgone sp., (?), larva
Pseudobunaea sp. (?), larva
Sphingidae
(sphinx or hawk-moths)
Agrius
(= Herse) convolvulus (Linn.), larva
Scientific name(s)
unreported
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Acanthacris
(= Acanthracis) ruficornis (Fabr.)
Acrida
bicolor (Thunberg)
Cyathosternum spp.
Cyrtacanthacris
(= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville), nymph,
adult
Locusta
migratoides (author?), adult
Locusta
migratoria (Linn.), adult
Ornithacris
cyanea (Stoll),
adult
Truxaloides
constrictus (Schaum)
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Acheta
sp.
Brachytrupes
(= Brachytrypes) membranaceus Drury, adult
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa
(= Curtillia) africana (author?)
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia
(= Homorocoryphus) differens (= nitidulus)(author?)
Jackson (1954: 64-66) listed 25 vernacular names
for insects in four orders that are consumed by natives in various parts of the
country: Coleoptera (beetles), nyenze,
mandere, gumbukumbu or gakata; Hymenoptera (ants, but some of the
names appear to apply to termites), majuru,
shwa or hwa or iswa, tsangarapfuta
or tsangarafuta; Lepidoptera
(caterpillars), mashonja, harati,
madora, pferepfe, nhowa, masenda,
ndambakurayira, ndanjeranje, nhongotowa; Orthoptera (locusts,
general names = mashu or whiza), bambomukota
or bombomukota,hanganwa, mhotanegwenzi,
borimori, mamunye, munjepunje, madzomba, tsunwa; (crickets), gurgwe,
ndororo.
Gelfand (1971: 1-7) gives a concise and excellent
critique of African diets as influenced by tradition and the European attitude.
Gelfand discussed a number of insect species that are included in the diet of
the Shona (pp. 163-171) and the percentage of the population that
includes them (pp. 194-199). His information is summarized below under
specific insect orders.
Gelfand
(pp. 194-199) described previously unpublished studies which revealed the
degree to which insects are included in the diets of different segments of
Shona society. In recording data from people admitted to Harare Hospital which
draws mainly a large urban population, Gelfand found that most of the patients
with nutritional diseases came from rural areas, and more came from European
farms (laborers) than from urban areas. Similarly, of 30 cases of classical
kwashiorkor admitted to his care, 17 were from rural areas, 9 from European
farms and 4 were urban. As a result of these observations, a study was
conducted to determine the frequency with which first class protein was
consumed (Zimbabwe Table 1; see Gelfand's Table 3, p. 196) by the different
groups: Grade I, very good, first class protein daily with each main meal;
Grade II, good, first class protein at least three days a week with the main
meal; Grade III, fair, first class protein once or twice a week; Grade IV,
poor, no first class protein during the week. The diet in the rural areas and
on European farms again appeared to be less adequate, in general, than in urban
areas.
In
a follow-up survey, Gelfand inquired of urban and rural Shona as to
whether they still ate the more "unusual" types of protein such as
mice, caterpillars and flying ants, and whether the traditional avoidance of
eggs was being maintained. The results (Zimbabwe Table 2; see Gelfand's Tables
5 and 6, page 198) showed that in both rural and urban areas, the Shona still
eat mice, caterpillars and flying ants (termites) and that the latter seemed to
be the most popular. Although the majority, mostly women, admitted to eating
eggs, this was done only occasionally and eggs are not yet an important source
of protein in the Shona diet.
Chavunduka (1975)
briefly discusses many insects that are included in the Shona diet although he
states that his list is not comprehensive. He notes that a decline in insect
populations is imminent as the result of ecological changes involving bush
clearance for settlement and agriculture and the consequent disappearance of
many indigenous trees and grasses on which the insects feed, and secondly as
the result of the use of insecticides. Species discussed by Chavunduka are
arranged below under their respective insect orders. Vernacular names, except
where otherwise indicated, are Shona terms.
Chavunduka concluded that insects are the cheapest source of animal
protein for the poor rural communities and urges that their use as food should
be encouraged. In his opinion, insects have averted many potential cases of
kwashiorkor in the remote rural areas.
The
following interesting culinary event was reported in a 1988 Zimbabwe newspaper
article datelined Domboshawa, Zimbabwe:
White ants were out of season, but
caterpillars, locusts and flying ants substituted nicely in a contest for cooks
demonstrating how to feed a family of five for less than a dollar. First prize was a bicycle. The piece
de resistance was sauteed matsimbi, yellow and black caterpillars
four inches long, served with the national staple called sadza, a ground corn
cooked into a stiff porridge.
Zhinji Nyikadzino won the bicycle
for a stew of home-grown greens, tomatoes and onions seasoned with dovi, a
version of peanut butter, and served with the ubiquitous sadza. She accompanied
it with a nutritious drink made of rapoko greens.
Relative
to possible efforts toward greater development of food insect resources in
Zimbabwe, DeFoliart (1989) quoted from a 1987 personal
communication from Professor R.J. Phelps (University of Zimbabwe): "The
time may well be ripe in this country. . . . Certainly, dried caterpillars of
saturniid moths are sold on the local market, and consumption of termites,
locusts and tettigoniids by the vast majority of the population continues in
spite of the presence of western cultures.
In fact, many people of European background eat termites here, although
not in the quantities that the local people do."
Wilson (1989: 2-6)
states that gathered wild foods play a daily role in rural diets in southern
Africa and are most important for making the relish that accompanies the
characteristic stiff cereal porridge. The
great miombo forest region extending from Angola across Zambia to Mozambique
and down into Zimbabwe has two peculiarly valuable food resources, mushrooms
and caterpillars. Where the forest
remains these provide an important relish during the rains and are dried for
use later in the year. In the deforested
areas the tree-associated mushrooms disappear, except those symbiotic with
termite species (mainly Termitomyces
spp.) which remain important. In the
deforested areas several caterpillar species that consume grasses and herbs,
and certain edible crickets and other orthopterans are regularly consumed. For example, the sphingid moth caterpillar, Herse convulvuli, which feeds on weeds of
the genus Convulvulus is abundant
in southern Zimbabwe. Brachytrupes membranaceus is the most
common cricket eaten, but there are several others as well as many types of
grasshoppers. The katydid, Ruspolia
differens deserves special mention as it has been swarming across
southern Africa in recent years.
Wilson
mentions that although fungi are less common outside of the miombo region,
several species of caterpillars, notably the 'mopane-worm' (Gonimbrasia belina), are very important in
the semi-arid regions. This species is generally common, although its
populations fluctuate wildly, wherever there are extensive areas of its host
tree Colophospermum mopane, which
is most common in lower and drier areas.
Very substantial urban markets exist for fungi and caterpillars in the
towns all over the region. Regional
international trade in caterpillars has a long history, and a number of large
industrial concerns have more recently started to deal in dried and tinned
caterpillars. Jassbro Ltd. operates out
of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe, and in mid-1986 was charging Z$6/kg of dried caterpillars
(equivalent at that time to UK£2.50). A few other insects are mentioned by
Wilson, including flying ants (termites) which are a major protein and fat
source for people during the early rains, and various beetles, bugs
(hemipterans) and locusts which are of local seasonal value.
Relative
to agro-ecological changes resulting in shifts in the species composition of
wild food resources, Wilson states (pp. 18-19):
"Deforestation, for example, leads to dramatic losses in edible
caterpillars and fungi. Yet the
grasslands and the fields that replace them support some different types of
caterpillars, more grasshoppers and crickets, and more grazing mammals,
including buck, rodents and hares."
Wilson (1990)
notes, relative to the nutritional value of insects used as food in Zimbabwe,
that a number of the species eaten in large quantities have a very high fat
content. The importance of this is that
people living on a predominantly millet diet take in even less fat than those
living predominantly on maize. Most of
the insects are consumed opportunistically, especially by children, and only
when a species is temporarily abundant is it gathered for use as a relish. Wilson (pp. 567-581, 620-622) provides
information on local names, food plants or vegetation association, ecological
zones, seasonal occurrence and present status of many Zimbabwe edible species,
some of which is summarized below under the appropriate orders and families.
As
part of a study in the Shurugwi Communal Area on the effect of deforestation on
strategies of woodland use and management in Zimbabwe's communal areas, McGregor (1991:
265-271) provides information on edible insects similar to that by Wilson and
on many of the same species (see under the appropriate taxa below). McGregor
concludes that past land use policy has had a lasting and detrimental effect on
woodland cover in the study area, and she states (p. 1):
Centralised institutions and the
authority of science have contributed to the devaluation of local
understandings and the underappreciation of the dynamism of use
strategies. Planning has persistently
been based on misunderstandings of savanna ecology and the way it is used. . .
. In contrast with state interventions, local strategies for coping with
environmental change can be highly effective in resource conservation. Many changes in resource use, however, are
rooted not in physical scarcity but in broader political, economic and
lifestyle changes, and in a desire for modernity. State agents have an increased role in determining
woodland usufruct in the study area.
There has been a decline in the authority of spirit guardianship of
woodlands and an increase in the use of privitised resources.
McGregor agrees with Wilson that although
insect populations dependent on woodland, such as most caterpillars, are
diminishing in dietary importance, other insect populations are increasingly
important, particularly those favoring arable and disturbed ground. Of four
species now widely marketed, there are two in each category, two species of
caterpillars, a cricket and a katydid (see under the appropriate taxa).
Coleoptera
Buprestidae (metallic
woodborers)
Sternocera funebris (Author?), adult
Sternocera orissa
Buquet, adult
Two
buprestid beetles, Sternocera funebris
and S. orissa, known as magakata are collected in the Spring,
similarly to, but in lesser numbers than the Christmas beetle described below (Gelfand 1971). The head, wings and legs are
discarded before preparation.
According
to Chavunduka, S. funebris and S. orissa are known as zvigakata,
rumagotsi, or dandaruma.
The larvae feed on Brachystegia spiciformis,
B. tamarindoides, and Julbernardia
globiflora.
Scarabaeidae (scarab
beetles)
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
anatina (author?),
adult
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
masnona (author?), adult
Lepidiota (= Eulepida)
nitidicollis (author?), adult
Eulepida masnona [or mashona
as spelled by Chavunduka?], which is a crop pest, is known as the Christmas
beetle, mandere or chafer, and is eaten as a relish (Gelfand 1971). The beetles emerge from the
ground at the beginning of the rains in summer and are found on the leaves of
the young munhondo and musasa trees. The women collect the
beetles by hand and remove the legs before putting them into baskets. After
being washed they are grilled; when cooked to about half their original size, a
little water and salt are added and they are grilled a little longer.
According
to Chavunduka, three chafer
beetles are used, Eulepida anatina
and E. nitidicollis, in addition
to E. mashona. All are known as mandere.
Their food trees are B. spiciformis and J. globiflora. The chafer beetles are collected by spreading
a white cloth under the tree and shaking the tree vigorously. The beetles are
collected early in the morning when they are less active. Wilson
(1990) mentions the species (as Eulepidida masnona) as common.
Miscellaneous Coleoptera.
See Jackson (1954) and Wilson (1989) in
the Introduction.
Hemiptera
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Euchosternum (= Haplosterna;
= Encosternum) delegorguei (Spinola) (= delagorguei),
adult
Pentascelis remipes (author?), adult
Pentascelis wahlbergi (author?), adult
Mjele (1934)
reported that the harugwa, or Haplosterna delagorguei is a highly prized
delicacy among the natives of the Bikita district who prefer them to either the
brown or red locusts. The harugwa arrive
in a dense mass from unknown breeding grounds apparently to the south and
usually toward the end of the rainy season. They feed on the leaves of wild
loquat trees which occur in dense groves in the area. The insects, which have a
strong musk-like odor, are prepared by first steeping them in hot water
to kill them. Pressure is then applied to the thorax to remove a certain
secretion which is unpleasant to the palate. They are then roasted on an open fire
and placed on a granite out-crop to dry. They are usually eaten with
other food, only "gourmands" eating them as a separate dish.
According to Mjele, the harugwa
continue from April to September, when, with the approach of the rains, they
fly southward.
According
to Cuthbertson (1934), Haplosterna
delegorguei (Spinola) is one of 10 species of pentatomids that have
the habit of congregating in enormous numbers in Zimbabwe. They appear in
swarms on certain trees (Mahobohobo
or Uapaca sp.) in March or April
in the Belingwe and Bikita districts and are the cause of serious quarrels
among the natives of neighboring kraals who use them as food.
Chavunduka states that, in the Bikita district, Encosternum delegorguei (harurwa) is much sought after and can be bartered
for qrain. The species is mentioned as
common by Wilson (1990). According to Chavunduka, Pentascelis remipes (magodo) feed on Combretum molle and C. imberbe (mugodo) and are a delicacy
among the Manyika and Ndau tribes. P.
wahlbergi (nharara) feed on Gardenia
resiniflua (mutara) and occur in clusters.
Miscellaneous Hemiptera.
A
common "bug" associated with Gardenia
spatulifolia trees and known as nharara,
and another "bug" known as bembere
and associated with Combretum sollis
and C. fragrans are mentioned by Wilson (1990). See also Wilson (1989) in the
Introduction.
Homoptera
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Loba leopardina (author?)
Loba leopardina (nyenze) feeds on Albizia antunesiana muriranyenze) (Chavunduka 1975). Nyenje
(= nyenze) is mentioned by Wilson (1990)
as common.
Hymenoptera
Apidae (bees)
Trigona spp., larvae
Gelfand discusses the collection and use of honey produced both
by Apis sp., called nyuchi by the Shona, and by several
species of Trigona bees, known as
monga, hwadza, mwanda, mbadzi, nhona, and kanyira. From Gelfand's discussion (pp. 163-164) it is
not clear whether the Shona use bee brood as food. Three kinds of hive are
recognized which are called mukuyo
(honeycombs), the machinda (bee
pupae), and the pfuma (royal
jelly). Gelfand states, "Only the mukuyo honey is taken home, that from the machinda hive is either eaten on the spot
or thrown away and that from the pfuma
eaten there and then." A cake-like mass made from honey boiled with
millet, and called chihungwe, is
eaten as a delicacy or may be taken to other villages and sold or bartered for
grain.
Wilson (1990)
discusses honey gathering and also possible factors affecting the changing
abundance of honey-producing insects.
Although he makes no direct mention of bee brood being consumed, such is
implied by his statement that:
"Honey, however, contributes only carbohydrates [to the diet],
except to the extent that larvae, etc. are also consumed."
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua Sm., winged adult
Gelfand notes that the tree ant, Carebara vidua, known as tsambarapfuta,
emerges from anthills for only a few days when rain comes. It is eaten as a
relish. According to Chavunduka, C. vidua (tsambarafuta), the "flying
ant" is often collected by the young and may be eaten raw. Wilson
(1990) mentions it (alate females)
as common in the rainy season. Also see
Jackson (1954) in the Introduction.
Isoptera
Termitidae
Macrotermes falciger Gerstacker (= goliath), winged adult, soldier, queen
Macrotermes natalensis
Haviland
Gelfand (p. 168) refers to the ishwa
and majuru of Jackson as the
flying adults and soldiers, respectively, of Macrotermes
goliath. The flying adults
appear in the summer at the beginning of the rains, usually in December, and
Gelfand describes the collecting procedure:
In order to gather them the men dig
a small hole into the anthill, large enough to insert a small claypot about ten
inches high. The pot has a little hole in its bottom communicating with the
earth below. Several small sticks are laid across the top, covered with leaves
of the gumbakumba bush (Eriosema shirense). All other holes in the
anthill are sealed to force the ants to enter the pot to which they are
attracted by the daylight or moonlight shining into it. When they come through
the opening of the pot just after dark the women and children catch them in
their hands. . . . When the woman has filled a calabash with them she closes
the opening with grass and takes home her spoil.
The termites are grilled with a little
salt added, winnowed to remove the wings, and served as a relish with the
porridge.
Chavunduka mentions Macrotermes
falciger (ishwa) soldiers and winged adults as food. The soldiers
are collected by opening out the mouth of the nest and inserting long blades of
grass or split reeds into the tunnel. The soldiers clamp into the grass with
their large mandibles. The grass is withdrawn and the soldiers are shaken into
a collecting vessel. As described by Chavunduka, the flying adults are
collected as follows:
A trench is dug on the slope of the
anthill in such a way that the mouth of the nest is at the highest point. A
wide mouthed earthen pot, with water, is placed at the lower end of the trench.
The trench is roofed over with grass except for a small window which admits a
little light at the bottom end. As the termites leave the nest they fly to the
bottom of the trench where they are trapped and collected in the earthen
vessel.
For eating they are roasted in the earthen
pot. Chavunduka cites studies on weanling rats by S.J.L. Moyo as evidence that
termites (M. falciger) are a rich
source of lysine and therefore are a good supplement to the maize meal in the
traditional African diet.
Cmelik (1969a) reported that lipid content averaged 25%
in both male and female alate Macrotermes goliath
on a fresh weight basis. Moisture content was 47%, so lipid content
on a dry basis was 47%. Size of both sexes ranged from 180-280 mg; based
on the average weight of 250 mg, lipid content averaged 60 mg per termite. Semi-quantitative
determinations showed about 60% of the total body lipids contained in the fat
body, 6% in thoracic muscle, 5% in the gut, 5% in the reproductive organs, 2%
in the head, and 22% in other parts of the body. All organs contained the same
fatty acids, C16:0, C18:0, C18.1, and C18:2, in variable proportions, but C18:1
was the predominant fatty acid in all organs. Quantitative determinations of
free and esterified cholesterol were carried out on the neutral lipid portion
of the total body lipids (Zimbabwe Table 3; see Cmelik's Table 3, p. 845), and
the low percentages for alates are due, according to Cmelik, to the presence of
the very large fat bodies which contain very little cholesterol. Soldier
termites yielded a low content of cholesterol esters while workers were exceptionally
high in all cholesterol fractions. Body lipids of soldiers and workers also
differed from those of alates in having a high content of hydrocarbons and only
small quantities of glycerides.
Cmelik (1969b)
similarly studied the neutral lipids from termite queens, i.e., Macrotermes natalensis and M. falciger. The cholesterol content of lipids from the
reproductive organs was much lower than that found earlier in other casts of M. falciger, but considerably higher than
found in reproductive organs of alates. In M.
natalensis, 72% of the total body lipids is contributed by the
reproductive organs while only 22% comes from the fat bodies. In M. falciger, the percentages are 83% and
11%, respectively. The eggs, which constitute the bulk of the reproductive organs,
are responsible for the large quantities of lipids in those organs. All organs
contained C16:0, C18:1, and C18:2 as major fatty acids, while C16:1, C18:0, and
C18:3 were present in smaller quantities. Live queens collected from excavated
mounds weighed 8-10 g, according to Cmelik.
Phelps et al (1975) investigated the protein quality of the
alate (winged) form of the termite, Macrotermes
falciger collected near Harare. The protein and fat composition of
wingless wet mass was found to be 21.2 and 22.5%, respectively, and of wingless
dry mass 41.8 and 44.3%, respectively. Amino acid analyses are shown in
Zimbabwe Table 4 (Phelps et al Table 2, p. 126). In a rat feeding trial, the
protein efficiency rating (PER) for lightly fried termites was 1.7 compared to
2.4 for casein, the quality of termite protein thus appearing somewhat low
(some generally used PER values are 3.5 for fish, 2.5 for casein, 1.7 for
groundnuts, 1.5 for wheat and 1.1 for maize). In a rat feeding trial with fat-extracted
termites, the digestibility of the termite protein was low compared to a casein
control (51 vs 84%). Several factors may have affected the outcome of the
tests, but it appears that rats have a restricted ability to digest termite
protein. The calorific value reported for M.
falciger, 761 kcal/100 g on an ash-free basis was extremely
high and, according to Phelps et al, possibly the highest yet reported for an
insect. Phelps et al note that the applicability of these results to other
termites and termite castes remains to be determined.
Wilson (1990)
describes collecting and cooking methods for alate termites (presumably mainly M. goliath) which emerge in tremendous
numbers, mostly at night, during the rains, especially when there are heavy
early rains. They are grilled/fried
without additional fat (or may be eaten raw), and the wings removed by
winnowing. They are storable for later
use. Sales are considerable, and the
alates "seem to be consumed in very large amounts by people of all wealth
and age categories." Soldier
termites are eaten during the hot dry season, and Wilson describes their
collection using grass, reed or sedge stalks (Cyperus
is preferred) which have been smeared with saliva. Soldier termites are collected mainly by
small groups of old women, often assisted by small children. They are used as relish for sadza porridge,
notably by poor families. Wilson notes
that there is a considerable market in soldier termites, and the fried salted
termites are relished at beer parties through the late dry season.
McGregor (1991) also comments that soldier termites used
as a relish for maize meal are considered a food for the poor and the elderly,
but as a snack they do not have this association and are widely eaten,
especially in beer halls. She remarks
that they can be an important source of income, and that "school teachers
are as enthusiastic as anyone else about their collection and
consumption."
See
also Duncan (1933), Jackson (1954), DeFoliart (1989) and Wilson (1989) in the
Introduction.
Lepidoptera
According
to Chavunduka, caterpillars are
harvested mainly by the women who search for them during the appropriate
season. If caterpillars that are not yet mature are found, a piece of bark is
tied around the tree to establish ownership of the insects. If the host tree is
far from her home, she will collect the immature caterpillars and transfer them
to a tree nearer her home. Chavunduka states that in good caterpillar areas
such as Nuanetsi, Belingwe and parts of Matabeleland, a family can collect as many
as four standard six-tin bags of caterpillars a day. They are prepared
for the food market and sold at beer halls. "At an average price of $24.00
per standard six-tin bag, some families can make a fairly good living
from selling caterpillars."
For
preparation, a caterpillar is held between the fingers of one hand while the
other hand is used to forcefully push the head into the body, thus eliminating
the ingesta through the anus. According to Chavunduka, an experienced preparer
can process up to a bag of caterpillars per day. The caterpillars are washed,
then boiled in salt water. For storage they are dried in the sun and can then
be stored for three to six months. Chavunduka points out that because of the
high content of unsaturated fatty acids, caterpillars, like other insects,
cannot be stored longer using the traditional methods of curing.
The
vernacular names recorded by Gelfand and
Chavunduka suggest that 10 or more species of caterpillars are consumed
although the specific scientific identity of only three species is known.
According
to Wilson (1990), caterpillars were extensively
recorded (beginning with the first colonists) as important in the rural diet in
Zimbabwe. He cites Bent in 1893 who
recorded that the people of Chivi "collect bags of caterpillars, brown
hairy caterpillars three inches long, which at this season of the year swarm on
the trees. These they disembowel and eat
in enormous quantities, and what they cannot eat on the expedition they dry in
the sun and take home for future consumption." Caterpillars are important in both clayveld
and sandveld ecological zones. Wilson
notes, however, that there is "an increasing, but still fairly small, number
of people who are starting to refuse to eat caterpillars at all on the grounds
that they are for 'primitives'. This is
not yet widespread in rural areas, and has not been sufficient to make much of
an impact on the urban market."
Also, members of Zionist and Apostolic faiths refuse to eat
caterpillars, because they consider them "worms" and there is a
biblical text forbidding the eating of worms.
Wilson mentions that all lepidopteran larvae
are gathered during the rainy season, and most species show irregular cycles of
abundance (possible factors responsible for this cycling are discussed). Also,
it is stated that most species of caterpillars "have declined considerably
in availability in living memory."
The decline has not exactly mirrored the decline in food trees, and
heavy exploitation by people may be among the factors that have reduced
numbers.
McGregor (1991)
reports that lepidopterous larvae associated with miombo woodland were formerly
important as food in Shurugwi, but their availability has decreased markedly
under deforestation. Of the 14 ethnospecies reported as commonly consumed in
the past, all but one (baribango)
have decreased in abundance and some are now very rare. Baribango
feeds on J. globiflora and Bauhinia thonningii but while the former
has decreased as a result of deforestation, the latter invades agricultural and
other disturbed land and is still abundant.
The main harvest method is to shake the tree so the larvae fall to the
ground, or to transfer larvae to a tree closer to home. McGregor reports that she did not see the
felling of trees or cutting of branches for caterpillar harvest as described by
Wilson. She, like Wilson, mentions the
great interannual fluctuation in caterpillar populations.
Lasiocampidae (eggar
moths, lappets)
Bodenheimer (1951: 190) states that the Bushmen in certain districts
of Zimbabwe collect branches with aggregated larvae of the lasiocampid, Brachiostegia sp., which are slightly
roasted before being eaten. It seems possible, however, that Bodenheimer may
have confused the genus name of the larva with the botanical genus, Brachystegia.
Limacodidae (slug
caterpillars)
Chavunduka records the term zviwize
for Limacodidae feeding on Protea angolensis
and P. abbyssinia (munhondo).
Notodontidae (prominents)
Anaphe panda (Boisdv.), larva
This
species is known as nhowa, and Wilson (1990)
gives the food plants on which cocoons are produced as J. globiflora and B. glaucescens. The food plant given by Gelfand for nhowa was Diplorhynchus
condylocarpon. McGregor states that few eat it.
Saturniidae (giant
silkworm moths)
Bunaea (= Bunea) alcinoe
(Stoll), larva
Bunaea sp., larva
Cirina forda (Westwood), larva
Gonimbrasia belina Westwood, larva
Goodia kuntzei Dewitz (?), larva
Gynanisa sp. (?), larva
Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva
Imbrasia ertli Rebel, larva
Lobobunaea sp., larva
Microgone sp. (?), larva
Pseudobunaea sp. (?), larva
Gelfand states that a number of kinds of caterpillars,
especially Imbrasia epimethea which
is known as madora, are eaten as
a delicacy and can be bought in any African market. They are eaten only when
full-grown. Food plants include the munhondo
(Julbernadia globiflora), musasa (Brachystegia
speciformis), mupfuti (B.
boehmii), muunze (B. glaucescens), and mukangadze (B. utilis) trees. According to Gelfand, the
larvae live on the bark of the trees during February and March until they are
large, at which time they move to the branches and feed on the leaves. By May
when they are "large and swollen" they are collected by the women.
The tree may be cut down if the larvae are numerous, otherwise they are collected
by climbing for them.
The
munhondo tree also harbors
another saturniid larva, the green and spiky magandari.
They appear at the beginning of the rains and "when it is discovered that
they are in the bush, men and women go in small groups to the spot. There may
be so many that the tree is covered with them and the women easily fill their
baskets. The tree may be cut down so that the caterpillars can be removed from
its branches more easily." The intestines are squeezed out, the larvae
washed and cooked with a little water. They are then dried and eaten as relish
throughout the year. Other caterpillars are prepared similarly.
Other
saturniid larvae include the nowha, harati
[Cirina forda] and mashondya.
The nowha are found on the mutowa tree (Diplorhynchus condylocarpon) in the spring. The harati also appear in the spring (about
October) and are harvested in November. A second generation is harvested in
February and a third in May. These larvae are found on the mukarati (Burkea africana) and muriranyenze (Albizia antunesiana) trees.
After drying, they may be cooked with peanut butter or grilled. According to
Gelfand, the harati, nowha and madora are all very valuable and can be
traded for millet, bulrush millet and maize when grain is required.
Chavunduka records the following Saturniidae: The mopane worm, Imbrasia epimethea (Shona: madora; Sindebele: a macimbi) feeds on Brachystegia spiciformis (musasa), B. tamarindoides (muunze) and Julbernardia globiflora (mutondo) in Mashonaland. In
Matabeleland the caterpillars thrive on Colophospermum
mopane (mopane). Bunea alcinoe,
known as mafenje masonja, feed on
Ekebergia arborea (muvuranyimo)
and Cussonia sp. (mufenje). Bunaea sp. (masinini) feed on B. spiciformis and J. globiflora (mutondo or munhondo). The larvae of Cirina forda (harati) feed on Burkea africana
trees. Chavunduka's reference to I.
epimethea as the 'mopane worm' is probably in error, as, elsewhere,
this term is used for Gonimbrasia belina.
Wilson (1990)
added Imbrasia ertli to the list
of known edible saturniids in Zimbabwe.
It is known locally as avasukundu, feeds
on J. globiflora and Brachystegia glaucescens, and is now very
rare. Also added is a caterpillar known
locally as sindigwizi which feeds
on J. globiflora bushes, and
which Wilson identifies as Microgone
spp. or Goodia kuntzei. The magandari
of Gelfand is identified by Wilson as Lobobunaea
and possibly Pseudobunaea and Gynanisa.
Several other saturniids are discussed including B. alcinoe which is said by Wilson to be
now virtually extinct in Zimbabwe. Cirina forda and possibly Imbrasia ertli are among miombo species
which show several cycles in some favorable years, so that they are available
both mid-rains and at harvest time. C. forda is said by Wilson to be still
common but to occur fewer times per year.
Gonimbrasia belina, the
'mopane-worm', is a particularly major food item and is "collected,
transported and sold on an industrial basis.
At Z$0.60 per 100 g dry (mid-1986), its price is similar to that of
fresh beef."
McGregor reports that two saturniids, C. forda and G. belina,
are found in urban and local markets. She, too, mentions that there are several
cycles of C. forda in years when
rains are good.
The
April 12, 1988 issue of The Herald,
a Zimbabwe newspaper published in Harare, reported as follows on G. belina:
Bulawayo caterpillars, better known
as macimbi or madora, have wriggled their way into the menus of some small city
restaurants and the trend appears to be establishing itself in areas where they
do not naturally occur. If the wave of
popularity of the protein-rich caterpillars is anything to go by, macimbi are
likely to become a feature in similar establishments in places as far north as
Mutare and Chipinge. In fact, the
managing director of a company specialising in dried foods, Mr. Abraham Jassat,
is adamant that the caterpillars have always been a popular gourmet [item] even
for people in areas where they do not occur.
'Everyone eats them,' said Mr.
Jassat whose company has been packaging the caterpillars for the past six
years. He showed our correspondent nearly 90 tonnes of the caterpillars which
he bought from villagers. 'The season was good for them because of the rains,'
he said. Mr. Jassat, who faces stiff
competition from small-scale traders, said he was receiving orders from as far
off as Mutare, Mt. Darwin, Chinhoye, Harare and Chiredzi. 'In fact we supply the whole country.' The
caterpillars occur in large numbers in a belt stretching from Lupane along the
Botswana border down to Gwanda.
Processing involves squeezing out the roughage and boiling them in
salted water before drying them in the sun.
An
article in The Herald (January 5,
1995) confirms that caterpillar collecting can be more attractive financially
than some other kinds of agricultural endeavor:
Villagers living near the Arda
irrigation scheme in Plumtree south are this year shunning cotton picking in
favour of a more lucrative venture of harvesting caterpillars (madora) [Imbrasia epimethea] for sale. The villagers are selling a 20-litre bucket
of caterpillars for $100 which is a far more viable business than that of
cotton which is 35 cents per kilogramme picked.
Only 10 people have so far responded to the advertisement for cotton
pickers.
Another 1995 article in The Herald reported that some villagers in
Plumtree have called on the Bulilimamangwe Rural District Council to pass a law
prohibiting people from other districts from coming in to collect mopani
caterpillars (macimbi) [Gonimbrasia belina]. The complaint was that outsiders were causing
serious environmental damage when harvesting the caterpillars by burning and
cutting down trees. According to the report, hundreds of people from different
parts of the country flood rural areas and farms twice a year, some camping for
more than three weeks.
In
a third article concerning caterpillar happenings near Plumtree, The Herald of May 7, 1996 reported that
263 identity documents, comprising identity cards, birth certificates and
voters cards were left behind by amacimbi [G.
belina] harvesters who thronged Bulilimamangwe district in
April. Some of the documents were left
by people from as far away as Gweru and Mutare districts. Caterpillar collectors who visited the
district were this year ordered to pay a $10 levy and a 20-litre bucket of the
caterpillars, to be surrendered after harvesting. They were ordered to surrender their identity
documents as security for the 20 litres.
Most, however, fled after collecting the caterpillars, preferring to pay
$10 for a new document rather than surrender caterpillars.
See
also DeFoliart (1989) and Wilson (1989) in the Introduction.
Sphingidae (sphinx and
hawk-moths)
Agrius (= Herse)
convolvulus (Linn.), larva
See
Wilson (1989) in the Introduction.
Miscellaneous Lepidoptera
Two other caterpillars mentioned by Gelfand are the nhemeteme, which lives on the mupane tree (Colophospermum
mopane), and the njanjenjanje,
which is harvested from the muzhanje tree
(Uapaca kirkiania) in December.
See also Duncan (1933) and Jackson (1954) in the Introduction.
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned
grasshoppers)
Acanthacris (=
Acanthracis) ruficornis (Fabr.)
Acrida bicolor (Thunberg)
Cyathosternum spp.
Cyrtacanthacris (=
Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville), nymph, adult
Locusta migratoides (author?), adult
Locusta migratoria (Linn.), adult
Ornithacris cyanea (Stoll), adult
Truxaloides constrictus (Schaum)
By
far the most important species of locust is Locusta
migratoria, known as mhashu,
but five other species are also consumed (Gelfand
1971). Because of their
seasonal appearance, and at infrequent intervals in a locality, they are
regarded more as a delicacy than as a food. When a swarm of L. migratoria has descended, usually in
cold weather, they are collected from the trees and bushes early in the morning
while they are still inactive. They are carried back to the village in large
bags or baskets and poured into a pot of boiling water. When cooked they are
spread out to dry for a day or two, then stored in bags until needed. They are
used as a relish with the porridge. To prepare them, the housewife places them
in a piece of burnt claypot with water and a little salt, then stirs and turns
them until the water has boiled away and they are completely dry. Another
method of preparing them is to roast and eat them after adding a little water
and salt. Gelfand states that the legs are not discarded but are removed and
ground to a fine powder which is cooked with salt and peanut butter, the
mixture being eaten as a relish.
Nomadacris septemfasciata, the red locust (huigo) is much smaller than L.
migratoria. They fly in swarms in the summer and are caught and
prepared in the same way as L. migratoria.
Ornithacris cyanea (bandamukuta) flies throughout the year but they
are not abundant. About 20 may be collected in a day. They are roasted with a
little water and salt. Two other kinds of Acrididae eaten by the Shona are Truxaloides constrictus (known as tsunwarunwa) and Cyathosternum spp. (hwenjekwenje).
Chavunduka (1975) notes that before the international locust
control programs came into existence, the locusts came in swarms and ate
everything -- but they got eaten as well. During each invasion tons
of locusts were collected. Species used as food include Nomadacris septemfasciata, the red locust,
and Locusta migratoides, both of
which are known as mhashu. The
former, according to Chavunduka, was responsible for a recent invasion into
northeastern Zimbabwe. Two other species of acridids eaten by the Shona are Acanthracis ruficornis (mhashumapfunde)
and Acrida bicolor (mutsumwarumwa).
According to Chavunduka, cattle are "very fond" of locusts. They have
been observed eating them in Matabeleland and Botswana during winter.
Wilson (1990)
mentions O. cyanea (local name bambamukota) as still common, N. septemfasciata (local name njeru) as rare, and T. constrictus (local name shumwashumwa) as common. There are differences in some of the local
names applied by Wilson from those by earlier authors. Wilson mentions six additional acridids: a
medium-sized red migratory locust (local name bandairo);
large winged grasshopper (boromoro); large, wingless brown grasshopper (bupu); small gray grasshopper (chindanga); migratory locust (chinjike) and a solitary locust (mhashu mapfunde). Most grasshoppers and
locusts occur and are harvested during the rains, but O. cyanea is found all year. Wilson, as did Chavunduka earlier, points out
that governmental control of migratory locust species, while relieving the
country of a serious menace also deprived the people of a major source of
food. See also Duncan (1933), Jackson
(1954), DeFoliart (1989) and Wilson (1989) in the Introduction.
Gryllidae (crickets)
Acheta sp.
Brachytrupes (=
Brachytrypes) membranaceus Drury, adult
The
sand cricket, Brachytrypes membranaceus is
considered a delicacy according to Gelfand. It
is known as gurwe and appears
during the rainy season. Its presence is indicated by a small heap of soil
pushed out from its burrow, and a hoe is used to uncover the crickets. As many
as 100 can be collected in a day. They are usually collected by the women and
children. For preparation, the wings and forelegs are removed but the hind legs
are kept. The crickets are degutted by opening the abdomen. They are grilled
with a pinch of salt added and are eaten as relish with stiff porridge.
The
most sought for cricket is Brachytrypes
membranaceus, the sand cricket or gurwe,
according to Chavunduka who
states, "When well prepared it is considered a delicacy, for it turns an
ordinary meal into a dinner." The black cricket, Acheta sp. (chikudyu), is also consumed by the Shona.
Jackson (1954) states, "As a point of interest,
especially to gardeners, I might mention that the crickets [B. membranaceus]
are got from their holes in the ground by, in addition to digging, pushing down
a stinging ant on the end of a piece of grass. On receiving the sting from the
writhing ant, the cricket usually jumps from its tunnel and is
captured." Wilson (1990)
mentions B. membranaceus and two
species of black crickets which have different vegetation associations. B.
membranaceus is one of the species that has increased in numbers
because it is particularly suited to the new kinds of agro-ecosystems. It is now a significant pest in sand-soil
fields. It inhabits grassy woodland and
particularly maize fields according to McGregor; it is increasingly abundant and is sold in
urban markets. See also Wilson (1989) in
the Introduction.
Gryllotalpidae (mole
crickets)
Gryllotalpa (=
Curtillia) africana (author?)
Gelfand mentions that the mole cricket, Curtillia africana, known as ndororo, is used in the Nuanetsi area.
This species is also mentioned as food by Chavunduka
and by Wilson (1990).
Tettigoniidae (long-horned
grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (=
Homorocoryphus) differens (= nitidulus) (author?)
One
species of tettigoniid, Homorocoryphus
nitidulus (tsumwa), is collected and cooked in the same way as the mhashu (Gelfand
1971). R. nitidulus is
known as dendamafuta or madumbudya according to Chavunduka (1975) and as dhuabudya
according to Wilson (1990).
It occurs in swarms in grassy woodland fields, particularly millet,
according to McGregor. It is harvested during the mid rains and is
sold in urban markets. See also
DeFoliart (1989) and Wilson (1989) in the Introduction.
The
April 22 issue of The Herald
(newspaper published in Harare) reported as follows:
Meat will be abundant in
Dzivaresekwa during the forthcoming independence celebrations -- thanks to the
grasshoppers [tettigoniids] which swarmed the area yesterday. Residents in the high-density suburb had been
worried by the shortage of meat in butcheries because of the increased demand
for meat throughout the country. They
were relieved early yesterday when they awoke and found that grasshoppers had
raided the suburb in their thousands. Housewives
abandoned their domestic chores to fetch buckets, bottles and tins to fill them
with the delicious insects. The
grasshoppers started swarming by 7 am and were still being collected by late
afternoon yesterday. By nightfall the
swarms had spread over most of Harare including the city centre.
References Cited (an *
denotes reference not seen)
Bodenheimer, F.S. 1951. Insects as Human Food. The Hague: W. Junk,
352 pp. (Lasiocampidae)
Chavunduka, D.M. 1975. Insects as a source of protein to the
African. Rhodesia Sci. News 9:
217-220. (Introduction and most
orders and families)
Cmelik, S.H.W. 1969a. The neutral lipids from various organs of
the termite Macrotermes goliath. J. Insect
Physiol. 15: 839-849.
(Termitidae, Table 3)
Cmelik, S.H.W. 1969b. Composition of the neutral lipids from
termite queens. J. Insect Physiol.
15: 1481-1487. (Termitidae)
Cuthbertson, A. 1934. Note on the swarming of pentatomid bugs. NADA, S. Rhodesia Native Affairs Dept. Ann.,
p. 38. (Pentatomidae)
DeFoliart, G.R. 1989.
The human use of insects as food and as animal feed. Bull.
Entomol. Soc. Amer. 35(1): 22-35.
(Introduction)
Duncan, J.R. 1933. Native food and culinary methods. NADA, S. Rhodesia Native Affairs Dept. Ann.
11: 101-106. (Introduction)
Gelfand, M. 1971. Diet and Tradition in an African Culture.
London: E & S Livingstone, pp. 1-7, 163-171, 194-199. (Introduction, Tables 1 and 2, and most
orders and families)
Jackson, A.P. 1954. Ample food without ploughing. NADA, S. Rhodesia Native Affairs Dept. Ann.
31: 64-66. (Introduction,
Gryllidae)
McGregor, JoAnn. 1991.
Woodland resources: ecology, policy and ideology. An historical case study of woodland use in
Shurugwi Communal Area, Zimbabwe. PhD
Diss. Loughborough University of Technology.
(Introduction and several orders and families)
"Mjele." 1934. "Haplosterna Delagorguei" (Order
Hemiptera). NADA, S. Rhodesia Native Affairs
Dept. Ann., pp. 37-38.
(Pentatomidae)
Phelps, R.J.; Struthers,
J.K.; Moyo, S.J.L. 1975. Investigations into the
nutritive value of Macrotermes falciger (Isoptera:
Termitidae). Zool. Afr. 10: 123-132. (Termitidae, Table 4)
Wilson, K.B. 1989.
The ecology of wild resource use for food by rural southern Africans:
why it remains so important. Paper presented to the conference: The Destruction
of the Environment and the future of life in the Middle East and Africa, 14th
to 17th July, 1989. (Introduction)
Wilson, K.B. 1990.
Biological dynamics and human welfare: a case study of population,
health and nutrition in southern Zimbabwe. PhD Diss. University College
London. (Introduction and most orders
and families)
Chapter 13 of The
Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource: A Bibliographic Account in Progress,
by Gene R. DeFoliart, posted on website, July 2002