Chapter 15

 

                                  CENTRAL AND EASTERN AFRICA: OVERVIEW

 

            The region as treated here is comprised mainly of Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa) (formerly Zaire), Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.  The wide variety of insects eaten includes at least 163 species, 121 genera, 34 families and 10 orders.  Of this group the specific identity is known for 128 species, only the generic identity for another 21, only the family identity of another 12 and only the order identity of one.  Gomez et al (1961) estimated that insects furnished 10% of the animal proteins produced annually in Congo (Kinshasa).  Yet, in this region, as in others, insect use has been greatly under-reported and under-studied.  Until recently, for example, the specific identity was known for fewer than twenty species of insects used in Congo (Kinshasa), but, in a careful study confined only to caterpillars and only to the southern part of the country, Malaisse and Parent (1980) distinguished 35 species of caterpillars used as food.  The extent of insect use throughout the region is probably similar to that in Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia, the best-studied countries.  Research is needed. 

            Caterpillars and termites are the most widely marketed insects in the region, but many others are also important from the food standpoint, nutritionally, economically or ecologically.  As stated by this author (DeFoliart 1989): "One can't help but wonder what the ecological and nutritional maps of Africa might look like today if more effort had been directed toward developing some of these caterpillar, termite, and other food insect resources."  The inclusion of food insects in the Africa-wide Exhibition on Indigenous Food Technologies held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1995 is indicative of the resurgence of interest in this resource by the  scientific community of the continent.

 

Regional Taxonomic Inventory

 

      Taxa and stages consumed                                                                                               Countries

 

                                                                     Coleoptera

 

Beetles/beetle grubs                                                                                                           Pan-regional

 

Bostrichidae (branch and twig borers)

Bostrichid larvae                                                                                                     Congo (Brazzaville)

 

Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)

Chrysobothris fatalis Harold, larva                                                                                           Angola

Psiloptera wellmani Kerremans, larva                                                                                      Angola

Steraspis amplipennis Fabr., larva                                                                                            Angola

Sternocera feldspathica White, larva                                                                                        Angola

 

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Acanthophorus capensis (author?), larva                                                                                  Zambia

Acanthophorus confinis Laporte, larva                                                                                     Zambia

Acanthophorus maculatus (author?), larva                                                                               Zambia

Ancylonotus tribulus Fabr., larva                                                                                              Gabon

Macrotoma edulis Karsch, larva                                                                         Sao Tome & Principe

Zographus ferox Har.                                                                                                               Angola

Cermbycid larvae                                                                                                    Congo (Brazzaville)

 

 

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr., larva                                                                              Pan-regional

Sipalinus aloysii (author?), larva                                                                                             Tanzania

 

Elateridae (click beetles)

Tetralobus flabellicornis Linn., larva                                                              Central African Republic

 

Passalidae (bess beetles)

Passalids                                                                                                                 Congo (Brazzaville)

 

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Augosoma centaurus Fabr., larva                                                        Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville)

Camenta sp., larva                                                                                                                    Angola

Gnathocera sp., larva                                                                                               Congo (Kinshasa)

Goliathus sp., larva                                                                                                  Congo (Kinshasa)

Oryctes boas (Fabr.), larva                                                       Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva                                              Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Pachylomera fermoralis                                                                                                          Zambia

Platygenia barbata Afzelius, larva                                                                            Congo (Kinshasa)

Platygenia spp., larvae                                                                                                  Tropical Africa

Popillia femoralis Klug, adult                                                                                              Cameroon

Popillia spp., adults                                                                                                             Cameroon

 

                                                                        Diptera

 

Chaoboridae (phantom midges)

Chaoborus edulis (Edwards), adult                                                              Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda

Lake flies                                                                                                                                    Kenya

 

                                                                 Ephemeroptera

 

Caenidae

Caenis kungu (author?), adult                                                                                                   Malawi

 

                                                                     Hemiptera

 

Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)

Belostoma spp.                                                                                                      Congo (Brazzaville)

 

Nepidae (waterscorpions)

A nepid                                                                                                                     Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Family uncertain

Nezara robusta (author?), adult                                                                                                Malawi

Sphaerocoris sp., adult                                                                                                             Malawi

 

                                                                     Homoptera

 

Cercopidae (spittlebugs)

A cercopid                                                                                                                Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Cicadidae (cicadas)

Afzeliada sp., adult                                                                                                 Congo (Brazzaville)

Ioba leopardina (author?), adult                                                                                               Zambia

Loba sp., adult                                                                                                                          Malawi

Monomotapa sp., adult                                                                                                             Malawi

Orapa sp., adult                                                                                                                        Malawi

Platypleura adouma Distant, adult                                                                         Congo (Brazzaville)

Platypleura sp., adult                                                                                                               Malawi

Platypleura stridula (author?), adult                                                                                         Zambia

Pyona sp., adult                                                                                                                        Malawi

Ugada giovannina Fabr., adult                                                                              Congo (Brazzaville)

Ugada limbalis Karsch, adult                                                                                                   Zambia

Ugada limbata Fabr., adult                                                                                    Congo (Brazzaville)

Ugada limbimaculata Fabr., adult                                                                         Congo (Brazzaville)

 

                                                                   Hymenoptera

 

Apidae (honey bees)

Apis mellifera adansonii Latr., larva                                            Tanzania, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Apis mellifera capensis (author?), larva                                                                                    Zambia

Meliponula bocandei Spin., larva                                                                             Congo (Kinshasa)

Trigona braunsi Kohl, larva                                                                                     Congo (Kinshasa)

Trigona erythra interposita Darchen, larva                                                              Congo (Kinshasa)

Trigona lendliana Fr., larva                                                                                     Congo (Kinshasa)

Trigona occidentalis Darchen, larva                                                                         Congo (Kinshasa)

Trigona richardsi Darchen, larva                                                                              Congo (Knshasa)

Bee larvae                                                                                          Angola, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda

 

Formicidae (ants)

Carebara vidua F. Smith, flying sexual                                           Malawi, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Oecophylla smaragdina longinoda (author?), larva, adult                                       Congo (Kinshasa)

Oecophylla sp.                                                                                                       Congo (Brazzaville)

Sternotornis sp., winged adult                                                                                  Congo (Kinshasa)

Ants                                                                                                                                           Gabon

 

Sphecidae (sphecoid wasps)

Sceliphron sp., "fly nests"                                                                                          Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Vespidae (wasps, hornets)

Synagris sp., "fly nests"                                                                                             Congo (Kinshasa)

Wasp brood                                                                                                             Congo (Kinshasa)

 

                                                                       Isoptera

 

Termites, flying ants, white ants, etc.                                                                                   Pan-regional

 

Termitidae

Bellicositermes spp., winged adults, soldiers                                                             Congo (Kinshasa)

Cubitermes spp., all stages                                                                                     Congo (Brazzaville)

Macrotermes bellicosus Smeathman, all stages                                                       Congo (Brazzaville)

Macrotermes falciger Gerstacker, winged adult                                                                        Zambia

Macrotermes natalensis Haviland, winged adult, soldier                                             Congo (Kinshasa)

Macrotermes spp., winged adults, soldiers                                     Malawi, Tanzania, Congo (Kinshasa)

Macrotermes subhyalinus Rambur, winged adult                                                         Angola, Zambia

Macrotermes vitrialatus (Sjostedt), winged adult                                                                     Zambia

Odontotermes badius (Haviland), winged adult                                                                         Zambia

Odontotermes sp.                                                                                                                      Kenya

Pseudacanthotermes spiniger Sjostedt, winged adult                                  Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Pseudacanthotermes spp., winged adults                                                                               Tanzania

Termes gabonensis (author?), winged adult, soldier                                                  Congo (Kinshasa)

Termes spp., winged adults, queens                                                                                         Tanzania

 

                                                                    Lepidoptera

 

Caterpillars                                                                                                                        Pan-regional

 

Ceratocampidae

Ceratocampid larvae (2 spp.)                                                                                    Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Hesperiidae (skippers)

Caeliades libeon Druce, larva                                                   Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Lasiocampidae (eggar moths, lappets)

Catalebeda jamesoni B.-Bak, pupa                                                                                         Zambia

Pachypasa bilinea Walk., pupa                                                                                                Zambia

 

Limacodidae (slug caterpillars)

Limacodid caterpillars                                                                                  Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

 

Noctuidae (noctuids)

Busseola fusca Hmps., larva                                                                                                     Zambia

Heliothis obsoleta Fabr., larva                                                                                                  Zambia

Nyodes prasinodes Prout, larva                                                                                Congo (Kinshasa)

Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr., larva                                                                                           Zambia

Spodoptera exempta Walker, larva                                                                                          Zambia

Spodoptera exigua Hubner, larva                                                                                             Zambia

Noctuid larvae                                                                                                        Congo (Brazzaville)

 

Notodontidae (prominants)

Anaphe infracta Walsingham, larva                                                           Congo (Brazzaville), Zambia

Anaphe panda (Boisd.), larva                                                                    Tanzania, Congo (Kinshasa)

Anaphe sp., larva                                                    Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Antheua insignata Gaede, larva                                                                               Congo (Kinshasa)

Desmeocraera sp., larva                                                                                                           Zambia

Drapetides uniformis Swinhoe, larva                                                                        Congo (Kinshasa)

Elaphrodes lactea Gaede, larva                                                                               Congo (Kinshasa)

Rhenea mediata Walker, larva                                                                                 Congo (Kinshasa)

Notodontid larvae (3 additional species)                                                                    Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies)

Nymphalid larvae                                                                                                      Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Psychidae (bagworm moths)

Clania moddermanni (author?), larva                                                                       Congo (Kinshasa)

Eumeta cervina Druce, larva                                                                                    Congo (Kinshasa)

Eumeta rougeoti Bourgogne, larva                                                                           Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)

Anthocera monippe (author?), larva                                                                                          Gabon

Anthocera spp., larvae                                                                                                               Gabon

Anthocera teffraria (author?), larva                                                                                           Gabon

Athletes gigas Sonthonnax, larva                                                                              Congo (Kinshasa)

Athletes semialba Sonthonnax, larva                                                                        Congo (Kinshasa)

Bunaea alcinoe Stoll, larva                                                           Tanzania, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Bunaeopsis aurantiaca Rothschild, larva                                  Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Bunaeopsis sp., larva, pupa                                                                                                       Zambia

Cinabra hyperbius Westwood, larva                                                           Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Cirina forda Westwood, larva                                     Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Gonimbrasia belina Westwood, larva                                                                         Malawi, Zambia

Gonimbrasia hecate Rougeot, larva                                                                         Congo (Kinshasa)

Gonimbrasia richelmanni Weymer, larva                                                                Congo (Kinshasa)

Gonimbrasia zambesina Walker, larva                                                                    Congo (Kinshasa)

Goodia kuntzei Dewitz, larva                                                                                   Congo (Kinshasa)

Gynanisa maia ata Strand, larva                                                   Malawi, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Holocerina agomensis Karsch, larva                                                                                        Zambia

Imbrasia dione Fabr., larva                                                                                      Congo (Kinshasa)

Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva                                                                 Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Imbrasia ertli Rebel, larva                                                                                                         Angola

Imbrasia macrothyris Rothschild, larva                                                                    Congo (Kinshasa)

Imbrasia obscura (author?), larva                                                                          Congo (Brazzaville)

Imbrasia rubra Bouvier, larva                                                                                      Congo (Kinshasa)

Imbrasia spp., larvae                                                                Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Imbrasia truncata (author?), larva                                            Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Lobobunaea christyi Sharpe, larva                                                                                           Zambia

Lobobunaea saturnus Fabr., larva                                                              Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Melanocera parva Rothschild, larva                                                                         Congo (Kinshasa)

Micragone ansorgei Rothschild, larva                                                                                       Zambia

Micragone cana Aurivillius, larva                                                                              Congo (Kinshasa)

Micragone herilla Westw., larva                                                                              Congo (Kinshasa)

Nudaurelia oyemensis (author?), larva                                      Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

Nudaurelia spp., larvae                                                                                            Congo (Kinshasa)

Pseudantheraea discrepens Butler, larva                                                               Congo (Brazzaville)

Tagaropsis flavinata Walker, larva                                                                          Congo (Kinshasa)

Saturnia marchi (author?), larva                                                                                                Gabon

Urota sinope Westw., larva                                                                         Gabon, Congo (Kinshasa)

Usta terpsichore M.& W., larva                                                                                               Angola

 

Sphingidae (sphinx or hawk-moths)

Herse convolvuli (Linn.), larva                                                                                                  Zambia

Nephele comma Hoppfer, pupa                                                                                                Zambia

Sphingid larvae                                                                          Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)

 

                                                                       Odonata

 

Family uncertain

Dragonfly nymphs                                                                                 Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville)

 

                                                                     Orthoptera

 

Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)

Acanthacris ruficornis Fabr., adult                                              Congo (Brazzaville), Malawi, Zambia

Acorypha nigrovariegata (author?), adult                                                                                Zambia

Acrida sulphuripennis Gerstacker, adult                                                                                   Zambia

Affroxyrrhepes procera Burmeister, adult                                                              Congo (Brazzaville)

Affroxyrrhepes sp., adult                                                                                                          Zambia

Amblyptymus sp., adult                                                                                                            Zambia

Ampe sp., adult                                                                                                      Congo (Brazzaville)

Cantatops ornatus (author?), adult                                                                                           Zambia

Cantatops sp., adult                                                                                                                 Zambia

Cantatops spissus Walker, adult                                                                            Congo (Brazzaville)

Cardeniopsis guttatus (author?), adult                                                                                      Zambia

Chirista compta Walker, adult                                                                               Congo (Brazzaville)

Cyathosternum sp., adult                                                                                                         Zambia

Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa (author?), adult                                                               Malawi, Zambia

Cyrtacanthacris septemfasciata Serville, adult                                                                                   

                                                                         Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Cyrtacanthacris tartaria (author?), adult                                                                                 Zambia

Gastrimargus africanus Saussure, adult                                                                Congo (Brazzaville)

Heteracris guineensis Krauss, adult                                                                       Congo (Brazzaville)

Homoxyrrhepes punctipennis Walker, nymph, adult                                                Congo (Kinshasa)

Locusta m. migratoria Linn., adult                              Congo (Brazzaville), Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Locusta migratoria migratorioides R.& F., adult                                       Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Locustana pardalina (Walker), adult                                                                                        Zambia

Oedaleus nigrofasciatus (author?), adult                                                                                  Zambia

Ornithacris spp., adults                                                                                                            Zambia

Ornithacris turbida (author?), adult                                                                       Congo (Brazzaville)

Oxycantatops congoensis Sjostedt, adult                                                               Congo (Brazzaville)

Poecilocerastis sp., adult                                                                                                          Zambia

Schistocerca gregaria Forskal, adult                                                           Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Schistocerca peregrinatoria Linn.                                                                                            Angola

Grasshoppers/ locusts                                                                                                        Pan-regional

 

Blattidae (roaches)

Cockroaches                                                                                                            Congo (Kinshasa)

 

Gryllidae (crickets)

 

Acheta spp., adults                                                                                                                   Zambia

Brachytrupes membranaceus Drury, adult                                                                        Pan-regional

Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer, adult                                                                                         Zambia

 

Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)

Gryllotalpa africana Palisot                                                                                                    Uganda

 

Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)

Ruspolia differens Audinet-Serville, adult                                      Uganda, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia

Ruspolia vicinus Walker, adult                                                                                  Malawi, Tanzania

Tettigonia sp.                                                                                                        Congo (Brazzaville)

 

            Much information is available on the insect foods in this region, and highlights are briefly summarized below under each country, with countries treated in alphabetical order (except that Congo (Kinshasa) which was still known as Zaire when this chapter was written is still located between Uganda and Zambia).  Nutrient analyses have been conducted in several countries, with especially valuable studies in Angola and Congo (Kinshasa).  Partly because of their remarkable abundance caterpillars and termites are not only of great nutritional importance but also of great ecological importance.  In studies in Malawi, Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia, the food importance of caterpillars has been shown to be a factor that can result in better forest management and protection.  Throughout the region, generally, insects are a favored food and widely marketed.

             In Angola, Oliveira et al provide nutrient analyses of four commonly eaten species, a termite, two species of saturniid caterpillars and the palm weevil larva (see Angola Table 1).  The insects are shown to be high in crude protein, calories  and many of the important vitamins and minerals.  The termite, Macrotermes subhyalinus, and the palm weevil larva, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, are especially high in energy value, 613 and 561 kcal/100 g, respectively, and the weevil larva and the saturniid caterpillar, Usta terpsichore, are high in zinc, thiamine and riboflavin.  The caterpillar is also a rich source of iron.  Of other insects, Wellman mentions that the people are very fond of roasted locu