Chapter
16
CENTRAL
AND EASTERN AFRICA: CONGO (Kinshaza)
(Formerly Zaire)
Taxa and life stages consumed
Curculionidae
(weevils, snout beetles)
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis Fabr., larva, adult (occasionally)
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Gnathocera sp.
Goliathus sp., larva
Oryctes boas Fabr., larva,
adult
Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva,
adult
Platygenia (=
Platygenis) barbata Afzelius, larva
Several spp.
apparently
Nepidae (waterscorpions)
A nepid sp.
Cercopidae
(spittlebugs)
A cercopid sp.
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis mellifica adansonii Latr., larva
Meliponula bocandei Spin., larva
Trigona braunsi (Kohl), larva
Trigona erythra interposita Darchen, larva
Trigona lendliana Fr., larva
Trigona occidentalis Darchen, larva
Trigona richardsi Darchen, larva
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua F. Smith, winged adult
Oecophylla smaragdina longinoda (author?), larva, adult
Sternotornis sp., winged adult
Sphecidae (sphecoid wasps)
Sceliphron (= Pelopoeus) sp.
Vespidae (wasps, hornets)
Synagris sp.
Termitidae
Bellicositermes spp., winged adults, soldiers
Macrotermes (= Termes) natalensis Haviland, winged adult, soldier
Macrotermes spp, winged adults, soldiers
Pseudacanthotermes (= Acanthotermes) spiniger Sjostedt, winged
adult
Termes gabonensis (author?), winged adult, soldier
Ceratocampid spp.
(2), larvae
Hesperiidae
(skippers)
Caliades (=
Coliades) libeon Druce, larva
Limacodidae (slug
caterpillars)
A limacodid sp.,
larva
Noctuidae
(noctuids)
Nyodes (= Elacodes)
prasinodes Prout, larva
Notodontidae
(prominants)
Anaphe panda (Boisd.), larva
Anaphe sp., larva
Antheua (=
Pheosigna) insignata Gaede, larva
Drapetides (=
Loptoperyx) uniformis Swinhoe, larva
Elaphrodes (=
Onophalera) lacteal Gaede, larva
Rhenea mediata Walker, larva
Nymphalidae
(brush-footed butterflies)
Species identity
not known
Psychidae (bagworm
moths)
Clania moddermanni (author?), larva
Eumeta cervina Druce, larva
Eumeta rougeoti Bourgogne, larva
Saturniidae (giant
silkworm moths)
Athletes gigas Sonthonnax, larva
Athletes semialba Sonthonnax, larva
Bunaea alcinoe Stoll (=
caffraria), larva
Bunaeopsis
aurantiaca Rothschild (= hersilia), larva
Cinabra hyperbius Westwood, larva
Cirina forda Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia hecate Rougeot (= nictitans
), larva
Gonimbrasia
richelmanni Weymer, larva
Gonimbrasia
zambesina Walker, larva
Goodia kuntzei Dewitz, larva
Gynanisa maia ata Strand, larva
Imbrasia dione Fabr., larva
Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva
Imbrasia
macrothyris Rothschild (= lubumbashii), larva
Imbrasia rubra Bouvier, larva
Imbrasia spp., larvae
Imbrasia truncata (author?), larva
Lobobunaea saturnus Fabr., larva
Melanocera parva Rothschild, larva
Micragone (=
Cyrtogone) cana Aurivillius, larva
Microgone herilla Westw., larva
Nudaurelia
oyemensis (author?), larva
Pseudanthara
discrepans Butler, larva
Tagoropsis
flavinata Walker (= hanningtoni), larva
Urota sinope Westw., larva
Sphingidae (sphinx
or hawk moths)
Sphingid spp. (2),
larvae
Several spp.,
larvae
At least one
species, identity unkown
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (=
Nomadacris) septemfasciata) Serville, adult
Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis Walker, nymph, adult
Locusta migratoria
migratorioides Reiche & Fairemaire, adult
Miscellaneous Acrididae
Several species
apparently
Blattidae
(cockroaches)
Identity unknown
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Brachytrupes
membranaceus Drury
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (=
Homorocoryphus) nitidula (author?) (= nitidulus ), adult
Ruspolia sp., adult
Possibly the most
comprehensive study anywhere to date on quantitative use of insects as food on
a national scale was that of Gomez et al (1961) who estimated
that insects furnished 10% of the animal proteins produced annually in Zaire
(now Congo [Kinshasa]), compared to 30% for game, 47% for fishing, and only 1%
for fish culture, 10% for grazing animals and 2% for poultry (Congo [Kinshasa]
Table l; see Gomez et al, p. 805, Diagram E). This 10% for Congo (Kinshasa) as
a whole becomes even more impressive when the data are broken down into the
country's 25 districts and 137 territories. In Congo (Kinshasa) Table 2 (drawn
from data of Gomez et al), the districts are listed in descending order on the
basis of food insect use as a percentage of the total animal proteins produced.
For each district, the number of territories is shown in parentheses. For
example, in Kwanga district, which is divided into five territories, insects
furnished 37% of the animal proteins for the district as a whole, and from 22%
to 64% in the different territories. Totally, in the country, insects furnished
more than 20% of the animal proteins produced in four of the districts and in
32 of the territories. It is interesting, and revealing, that in projecting the
country's future protein needs and how they might be met, Gomez et al
considered possible increases in fish culture, grazing animals and poultry, but
assumed that the insect contribution, similarly to game and fishing, would
remain only at then‑current levels. These data are of particular
interest, because it is probable that the quantitative use of insects as
estimated for Congo (Kinshasa) is not atypical of most other countries in
central and southern Africa.
Schebesta (1936: 165)
reported on the foods of the Bambuti stating that the hunt is by no means the
most important source of food. Their staple diet is essentially vegetarian and
is provided almost exclusively by the women, although the men also bring in all
kinds of roots or fruits on their way home from the hunt. The most favored
titbit is honey, which is collected by both men and women. Six different kinds
of bees are known to the Bambuti. All of the Bambuti eat ants, caterpillars and
grubs. The grubs, mostly the size of one's small finger, are very fat and are
found in decayed trees which the Bambuti persistently seek and break into
fragments so as to secure all of the larvae. Schebesta states that: "Unfortunately
the supply of foodstuffs is very uncertain, and changes with the seasons. There
are lean months and full months. The snail season alternates with the ant
period, and this in turn gives place to the time when grubs are plentiful and
caterpillars in season."
Schebesta (1938:
67‑71; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 195‑196) reiterates in greater detail points made in the earlier
paper. Game animals are more scarce in
the Ituri than is generally assumed, and smaller animals, including insects,
are of fundamental importance for the existence of the Bambuti. The Ituri as a
whole is rich in termite hills, and, according to Schebesta, termites vie with
wild honey as the most prized foods of the Bambuti. Caterpillars, grubs from
rotting trees, and larvae of all kinds are collected.
Schebasta (sic)
(1940: 31) refers to the use of caterpillars and termites by the
Bambuti (translation): "In the forest, one must always keep one's eyes
open: this felt that clings to a tree trunk is a colony of caterpillars that
will fill a supply basket in minutes. Grilled, it is a great pleasure, but on
grinding them up with vegetables, a flavorful seasoning can also be made."
Harvesting is the exclusive domain of women. Schebasta says of termites:
Termites are not found everywhere; but all termite nests find fans. At the time of harvest, the camps are abuzz. The women get ready by weaving baskets. A termite mound has its owner, just as a tree with caterpillars or a tree with honey does. In order to indicate ownership, the discoverer of the find tramples on and breaks the underbrush all around it.
Schebasta continues:
The propitious moment is that of the swarming; they frequently visit the termite nest for fear of missing it. By scraping off the thin layer of earth that covers the mound, the tunnels that wind through it are exposed. Some little pieces of wood are stuck in the openings; upon removing them, the moment when the termites are close to reaching the surface is recognized. Flight is at night. The family stays, during the waiting period, next to a small screen. Some leaves are held above the termite nest; at the base, a hole is dug and some resinous wood is piled there. The termite mound begins to swarm with a sort of grating. With wings outstretched, the insects rise, bump into the roof of leaves and fall back to the ground. A fire is lit at the edge of the hole, its light draws them, and they fall into the trap.
Chinn (1945:
123-131, 137-149) discussed the food use and nutritional value of several
beetles, an ant, termites, caterpillars and a grasshopper in the province of
Coquilhatville (the city of Coquilhatville is now Mbandaka) (see below under
the appropriate taxonomic categories).
Adriaens (1951)
studied the food and nutrition among five tribes, the Bayaka, the Bapelende,
the Basuku, the Bambeko and the Bankano in south‑central Congo (Kinshasa)
(Kasai and Lower Congo districts). The studies were intentionally limited to
regions where the economic activity is weak or nil, the soil barren, and the
tribes have little or no income (pp. 228‑230). The difficulties in
conducting the study are described in part as follows (translation):
Apart from the instinctive mistrust of the Blacks towards anyone who wants to penetrate their life, it must be remembered that the majority of adults are illiterate. Besides, the interviewees never understand the importance of the study in which they are wanted to take part. Either they carry on with lamentations of their bad luck or, so as not to incur the disfavor of the interviewer, and in the secret hope of getting it over with as fast as possible, they will give the response they deem the most conformable to his wishes.
Help from "native brothers of the teaching congregations,
agricultural instructors, and the nurses of the rural dispensaries" was
essential in overcoming these obstacles.
Adriaens notes that:
When one comes in contact with the native of central Africa, one clearly gets the feeling that the question of the meal, which he does not require daily nor even periodically, pursues him like an obsession. Having scarcely arrived in Africa, we stopped before a venerable baobab and asked a bystander what the name of this tree was in the local dialect. He answered while shaking his head, 'It is not for eating.'.... Songs, proverbs and legends constantly recall the imperious necessity of alimentation. Among the Bapelende, the children welcome the traveler by singing: 'The rainy season is also that of the caterpillar and the pineapple' [pp. 231-232].... As a member of the clan, the Black knows that everything he owns belongs first to the clan, or at the very least, should be at the disposition of his fellow villagers. Consequently, he will keep in his hut only what he needs for one or two meals. Outside of some small packets of caterpillars or dried mushrooms, sometimes some leftover manioc, there are scarcely any foodstuffs that are not also found in the homes of his neighbors [p. 234].... In Pangala, among the Bankano, we were witness to a collective meal. Four women had each brought a basket of manioc paste of about 2.5 kg, with a small native casserole filled with a puree of legumes or squash almond 'soup,' insects cooked in water or, finally, some puree of legumes enhanced with some caterpillars. According to one's fantasy and preference, each of the participants pulls a bit of paste from one of the four baskets and dunks it into one of the four casseroles before swallowing it (p. 235).
Adriaens (p. 246)
lists comparative prices of native products in the local market in Kenge (Bayaka
and Bapelende) in March, 1948:
Manioc,
soaked and dried in carrots 0.40
fr/kg
Maize 0.50
fr/kg
Peanuts
in pods 2.00
fr/kg
Native
rice, hulled
3.50 fr/kg
Fish,
salted and dried l0.00 fr/kg
Dried
caterpillars "Mikwati" (Saturniidae)
12.00 fr/kg
Adriaens (p. 251)
states:
Without a doubt, the native finds carbohydrates in abundance in his natural environment, while protides and lipids, we agree, are in insufficient quantity. It would take some effort to overcome the deficiencies in his diet through the purchase of palm oil and salt, but his income seems inadequate for regularly obtaining imported meat. Salted and dried fish, unwieldy merchandise which is demanded by the higher‑priority mining and industrial societies, has a hard time making its way to the interior of the country. More often than not, it is bought by the public services, which have to supply rations to the police and soldiers.
Adriaens makes several
remarks relative to insect use in specific tribes. For the Bayaka, the forest
is their domain.
Since agriculture and fishing are the domain of the women, hunting is the main occupation of the men. It is the object of all their worries and the subject of their interminable conversations. When there is no meat or it is scarce, the Blacks fall back on insects: grasshoppers, caterpillars and crickets. In the dry season, at the time of the shrinkage of the waters, the waterfronts of the Kwango yield big aquatic mollusks. These dishes [mollusks], however, are reserved for the women and the 'poor.'
Adriaens states of the
Basuku (pp. 262‑263):
When one travels through the country of the Entre‑Kwenge‑Bakali in June, one sees women and children by the dozen prowling over the recently burned land in search of charred grasshoppers. They have walked a long time to get to the bush of their clan; at dusk, they go back to their village with a fistful of insects, which will be used to flavor the crushed squash almond soup. The harvest of insects, an ancestral activity, is more consistent with the spirit of the Musuku than is big game hunting.
Of the Bankano, a very backward group, Adriaens says (p. 267), "The little currents of
water contain few fish and the caterpillars are rather rare."
Adriaens (1951) notes
that the tribes of the Kango are carnivorous by inclination, vegetarian by
necessity. The introduction of manioc was a "godsend," but according
to Adriaens, starchy foods have lost favor (p. 475). Carrots, along with manioc
leaves, constitute the basic food, and yams are still found. As the manioc
dough is tasteless it is never eaten without the accompaniment of garnishes,
the bissaka and makaia. These garnishes are mainly obtained from
the forest and include such things as mushrooms cooked in water and warmed up
in palm oil, or squash almond soup which may or may not be flavored with
grasshoppers, caterpillars or crickets. Adriaens states (p. 476),
"Consumption of animal protides essentially depends on the risks of
hunting and fishing, because it is the exception rather than the rule, and only
for great events, that the Black will sacrifice a piece of his caprine
livestock."
Game and fish are
seasonal sources of animal proteins. Adriaens describes the role of insects as
follows (a somewhat condensed and edited translation of Adriaen's text, pp.
495-498):
The rainy season also brings caterpillars, larvae and
different insects, of which the natives are very fond. The most sought after
caterpillars are the 'Mikwati.'
'Mikwati' is also the name given by the natives to the botanical association,
Erythrophleum africanum, Ctenium newtonni, Hyparrhenia pachystachya, the
most typical association of wooded savannahs of the Kwango, and also found in
the small valleys. On the other hand, the caterpillars 'Misasi' or
'Mikobeto,' 'Tsiata' or 'Mingolo' show
their preference for alighting on the 'Musesi,' Burckea africana.
Throughout the entire area of the Kwango district,
situated beneath the 5th parallel south, there is some real breeding going on.
A modern Black explained to us that, in his childhood, when he had discovered a
caterpillar nest, he placed it precautiously on the 'Mikwati.' They were crammed in there, he told us, and
growing larger, and at the time of the first brush fires, they fell from the
tree, charred and dried. They were eaten immediately or stockpiled, unless they
were cooked in water with salt before being put out to dry in the sun.
Some weeks before the beginning of the dry season, the
Blacks burn the savannah, the goal being to force out the game, and also,
thanks to the last rains, the bushes may give young sprouts again before the
period of great drought. Whereas all the surrounding brush is left bare by the
fires, the leaves of the 'Mikwati' constitute an abundant reserve of verdure.
It is therefore very easy to harvest caterpillars, to dry and sell them. It is
not unusual to see caterpillars called 'Panzi' displayed at the trading posts.
At a single store in the commercial center of Kwenge in February 1948, there
was a supply of 50 bags, 50 kg apiece; they were sold at 12 francs per kilo. We
have been told that the territory of Kasongo‑Lunda exports significant
quantities of these caterpillars in the direction of [Kinshasa].
The best time to harvest caterpillars is December‑January.
At this time, the Blacks eat from 50 to 100 grams of dried caterpillars per
day, for 4 or 5 persons. When the black housewife uses the dry caterpillars,
she is careful to eliminate the contents of the body. When she has fresh
caterpillars, she 'purges' them at both ends. It seems, then, that the chitin
alone is eaten.
The 'Missati' or 'Mikwati' that we were able to harvest
in the Bapelende villages appeared to be Imbrasia (Saturnidae).
Generally, the caterpillars eaten by the natives belong to diverse families.
Among our harvests, there were Sphingidae, Notodontidae, Noctuidae,
Nymphalidae, and mainly, Saturnidae. It should also be noted that Caeliades
libeon Druce (Hesperidae) is quite common and very well‑liked by the
natives. The Bapelende call it 'Mwanqu' or 'Tunzengededi.'
In the dry season, the natives do not disdain certain
crickets, or 'nzenze' ([Brachytrupes =] Brachytrypes membranaceous),
which are sometimes called 'tubes of fat,' certain grasshoppers, and
'kinzenze.' The 'nzenze' are solitary. At nightfall, they emerge from their
tunnel to eat the fresh grass. Near the entrance of their lodging, they blast a
long strident shout, running the risk of having to hurry into their tunnel at
the slightest alert. With great skill, the black children succeed in capturing
them at the moment they begin their cry. In the dry season, when the grass
becomes scarce, the 'nzenze' move farther away to look for food. At the end of
August 1948, we found tunnels containing debris of fern leaves. The Blacks then
try to blind the insect with the light from torched straw. Most of the time it
is necessary to dig deeply to capture the 'nzenze,' which are curled up at the
bottom of their tunnel.
Among larvae of other insects, the white palm tree worm
(Platygenis barbata, 'mafulu' in Kimbala, 'mafundu' in Kiaka) is a
choice dish. The Basonde and the Basuku from around Feshi exhume 'Makela'
larvae from soil close to streams and marshland. When the harvest is abundant,
or when money is needed, the natives pierce some larvae onto a small stick, dry
and smoke them and sell them in the village. In a native market at Feshi, 1 lot
of 15 Makela was sold in 1948 for 1 fr 50. The 'Mafundi' are big Coleoptera
larvae that live in hot, humid places, compost holes or places where palm tree
leaves and wood debris accumulate. The female natives dig with a hoe to find
the 'Mafundi' which are curled up on top of one another.
It is also important to point out the winged ants
'Tswa,' 'Ngangula' Gnathocira sp.
[a scarabaeid], the 'Nsengi‑tringa,' (Bambala) or 'Bitsiki' (Basuku) Sternotornis
sp. and the different grasshoppers. Brush is burned in order to capture
grasshoppers.
Culinary preparation of the insects is very simple.
Caterpillars, larvae and grasshoppers are normally cooked at the same time as
the peanut seeds and the crushed squash almonds. The 'nzenze' are heated in a
native saucepan and sprinkled with water during cooking.
Thus, each season brings protides of animal origin:
during the dry season, big game, 'nzenze' and grasshoppers; during the rainy
season, caterpillars; and throughout the year, fish, rodents, reptiles, and
diverse larvae. Provision of these protides is essentially dependent on the
nature of the fauna, on abundance of the species, and on the season, too.
Hunting is the men's job, reptiles and rodents are captured by the children,
and the harvest of different insects and fishing fall especially on the women's
shoulders.
Adriaens reports that
geophagy or the custom of eating earth is very common throughout much of the
Kwango. Clay is preferred, with women the main consumers, especially those who
are pregnant. The custom apparently has to do with a concern for providing lime
to the fetus. Among the sources used are fragments of "fly nests,"
called "maconnes" (or animal which builds home with dirt). The genera
used are Synagris sp. and/or Pelopaeus sp.
Adriaens discusses
native cuisine as preparations based on vegetable products (pp. 518‑520)
and those based on products of animal origin (pp. 520‑521). Vegetable
preparations include: a) "Saka‑saka," or puree of manioc leaves
and young buds; b) Purees from leaves of other plants; c) Mushrooms, and; d)
Foods of vegetable origin, like brans and voandzou, which are not indigenous
(often they are introductions of the European) and make their way into the native
dishes only with difficulty. Most foods, whether of vegetable or animal origin,
are cooked for a long time in water. In the case of manioc leaves, chopping
into small pieces and the long cooking should result in the hydrolysis of
cyanogenetic heteroside and release of cyanhydric acid. Insects, small fish,
crabs or shrimp are frequently added to the purees, but they represent only a
small amount in relation to the total mass; "at the maximum, l0
caterpillars or grasshoppers, 50 grams of dried fish in a plate destined for 2
people." Relative to mushrooms,
Adriaens states:
During the rainy season, the natives gather and eat an abundance of mushrooms. One hundred grams of dried mushrooms dipped in tepid water before culinary use, then warmed up with a trace of oil, constitute a meal for 3 people. When the harvest is abundant, the housewives cut them up into pieces and dry them on the roof of the hut. They are, along with caterpillars, pili‑pili and tobacco leaves, the only provisions that are found hanging inside the huts.
Preparations based on
products of animal origin include: a) Game meat, occasionally bred meat, and
larger fish; b) Rats, and; c) Insects, although the latter two are not
considered meat. Caterpillars are cooked in saltwater after having been purged
if they are fresh or winnowed if they are dried. They are eaten with
"soup" of squashed almonds. The nzenze, or crickets, are
handled in one of four ways: a) cooked in water with salt and some pili‑pili;
b) pierced through with a small stick, grilled and eaten immediately, either
alone or with squash soup; c) cleaned of intestines, feet and mandibles, dried
over the fire or in the sun, and munched upon; d) thrown into a hot saucepan
and sprinkled with a little water.
Finally, Adriaens (p.
532) presents data on the nature and frequency of garnishes among 44 Bayaka
families at Munene during the morning meal, September 12, 1948, towards the end
of the dry season:
l) Purees, whose major ingredient is "Dimbula"
(Gnetum africanum Welw.) 18 or 44%
Dimbula + grilled
winged ants l
+ different grasshoppers l
+ mushrooms + grilled winged ants l
2) Purees with a "Mbondi" base (Salacia
pynaerti DeWild)
11 or 25%
Mbondi + squash seed
or peanut seeds + caterpillars 2
+ grilled winged ants 1
3)
"Soups" with a squash seed base 10 or 23%
+
caterpillars
2
+ grilled
winged ants 1
+
grasshoppers
3
+
caterpillars + grilled winged ants 1
+
grasshoppers + caterpillars l
+
grasshoppers + shrimp 1
4) Different foods 5 or 11%
Grilled nzenze (Brachytrupes
membranaceus) l
From the above
tabulation, it is seen that, on the particular morning sampled, insects were
included in 16 of the 44 family meals or 36%.
Relative to animal
proteins, Adriaens (p. 534) says of caterpillars, "The usual amount of
dried caterpillars cooked in water and added to peanut seeds or crushed squash
almonds is 100 grams for 2 adults."
Finally, in stressing
the quantitative importance of garnishes, Adriaens mentions (p. 546) several of
them that included insects that were observed in the mission schools: at Kingunji,
caterpillars + ground peanuts + pili‑pili; at Kimbongo, worms of the palm
tree (Platygenis barbata) + some squash almonds; and at Ndinga, salted
and dried fish cooked in water with caterpillars (Saturniidae) + palm oil + pili‑pili.
Adriaens,
as have others doing similar studies, stressed the difficulty of getting
reliable specific insect identifications, even when expert taxonomic input is
available. He states (p. 495): "We would really like to stress how
laborious the identification of the insects was. The specimens gathered in the
villages are frequently in different stages of development. Moreover, they are
already in a dry state the majority of the time, unless they have been treated
or grilled by the natives. Insects and grasshoppers have almost always had
their feet and wings removed."
Heymans
and Evrard (1970) analyzed several kinds of insects
purchased in a public market in the village of Lubumbashi, and, in addition,
several lots from captures in the vicinity of the village (Congo (Kinshasa)
Table 3; see below, data drawn from Heymans and Evrard, pp.334-337). The lots
collected for analysis were as follows (translation):
#1) Soldier termites of the genera Bellicositermes and
Macrotermes (Family Termitidae); vernacular names, macaro,
(Swahili), mankenene (Tshiluba‑Kasai), bamambay (Tshibemba);
purchased alive 9 January 1970; price 20 K (Makuta) for 206.2 grams. The
soldiers are eaten grilled or smoked and constitute a food much‑liked by
the Baluba (Kasai and Katanga), the Tshokwe and the Lunda.
#2) Winged termites of the genera Bellicositermes and
Macrotermes; vernacular names, inswa (Swahili), nswa (Tshiluba
- Kasai), fibengele (Tshibemba); captured November 1969, bought January
1970, smoked material; price 10 K (Makuta) for 137.4 g. The authors state that
the winged termites "are harvested in abundance from the time of the first
rains and represent a delectable food for the tribes of Katanga and Kasai. The
natives prefer them far and away to the soldier termites which, according to
them, have very few lipids and consequently are of very low nutritive
value."
#3) Caterpillars; vernacular names, mansamba (Tshiluba‑Kasai),
bamukoso (Tshibemba); captured October 1969, bought 9 January 1970;
price 20 K (Makuta) for 176.3 g.
#4) Caterpillars; vernacular names, nukoso (Tshibemba),
binkubala (Swahili); captured 11 January 1970; boiled material + salt.
The authors state that caterpillars are frequently encountered at mealtime and
constitute, along with winged termites, a secondary food that is very well‑liked
by the Katanga and Kasai populations. They often accompany the main dish
obtained from manioc flour or corn mashed in boiling water. They can be
prepared by simple cooking in saltwater, by frying in boiling oil after
previous cooking in non‑saltwater, by grilling on metallic plates heated
over a fire, or by smoking by a wood fire.
#5) Nymphal stage female grasshoppers without wings, Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis (Walker) (Family Acrididae); vernacular names, pandjo (Swahili
term for grasshoppers in general), muluba (Tshiluba‑Kasai), tete
(Tshibemba); living material captured 12 January 1970.
#6) Same data as Lot #5 except these grasshoppers were in
the sixth nymphal stage with wings half‑developed.
#7) Adult male grasshoppers, otherwise same data as Lots
#5 and 6.
Grasshoppers
are prepared by several methods, but mainly by grilling or smoking. They are
used as a sidedish and are well‑liked by the local people. Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis is collected in qreat numbers in the same season as another
edible species, Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) nitidula, but whereas the
former is collected in tall graminees bordering roads and fields, the latter is
collected mainly in the evenings around public streetliqhts.
According
to Heymans and Evrard, the edible insects utilized in the province of Katanga
are mainly the termites, caterpillars and grasshoppers, and these are all
prized by the local populations. They are rich in proteins and fats (a very
much sought‑after constituent), furnish some calcium and make not a negligible
contribution to nutrition. The authors state that: "The winged termites
are especially rich in lipids. In the eastern province, this fat is kept in a
jar and is currently used by the local people. It constitutes a solution to all
lipidic problems." They also
state: "The various cooking methods, as well as the modes of modern
transportation, permit their acquisition almost year‑round. Their low
price does not pose an obstacle to the majority of the people, who can likewise
find proteins and fats at a cheap price."
Tango
Muyay (1981) (as translated by Dan Turk) identifies by
vernacular name and discusses more than 50 species of insects eaten by the
Yansi, a group of people living in an area of central Zaire extending
approximately 200 km southeastward from the city of Bandundu. That the Yansi recognize the nutritional
value of insects is apparent from an old Yansi saying, "caterpillars and
meat play the same role in the human body" (p. 9). The author emphasizes that unlike large game
animals, insects are easy to catch and readily available throughout the year.
Hence the saying, "As food, caterpillars are regulars in the village but
meat is a stranger" (p. 10). A
table (p. 28) lists many of the species available each month, the main season
being December-January.
Tango
Muyay describes several methods for conserving insects (p. 11). Some species are preserved alive for weeks
or even months. "Mimpoo" caterpillars are placed in the thatch roofs
of houses where they make their "nests" and can be kept alive for up
to 6 months. Beetle larvae are
sometimes kept in pots where they fatten on manioc flour for 3 or 4 weeks. "Nseol" palm grubs can be kept
alive in oil where they grow fatter until ready to be eaten several weeks
later. Three species of caterpillars
("misa", "nkukab", and "mindan") are sometimes
taken from the forest at a young age to be raised to maturity on trees in the
village. Beetle larvae, grasshoppers,
black crickets, termites and many caterpillars are dried in the sun, then over
a fire for long-term preservation.
Drying in this manner appears to be the preferred method for preparing
insects for sale to commercial vendors. Muyay warns that poorly preserved
caterpillars are subject to attack by maggots (p. 12). In preserving insects or
preparing them for direct consumption, the intestines of species with a lot of
excrement are first purged. Species without excrement are highly esteemed (p.
21).
Tango
Muyay emphasizes the increasing importance of insects in commerce, particularly
of certain caterpillar species. One of
the species for sale in the Bandundu market in January 1981,
"mingwel," was purchased from merchants in Kikwit, more than 250 km
to the southeast (pp. 12-13). Some
species now used were relatively recently adopted into Yansi cuisine due to the
influence of their neighbors, the Mbala (p. 13). Among these are "makul" larvae, "kebamwe"
beetles, and a number of grasshoppers (p. 147). Muyay devotes separate chapters of his book to caterpillars,
larvae, adult beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, aquatic insects, and termites,
providing information on each species' use as food and by whom it is collected,
cooked and consumed, and information on food plants, behavior, abundance and
seasonal availability of the insects (see below under the appropriate taxonomic
categories). Muyay also records songs
(a total of 70), stories and sayings which illustrate the importance of each
species within Yansi culture.
Susan
Kirinich, Peace Corps Volunteer in Zaire (now Congo [Kinshasa])
from 1981 to 1983, reported (pers. comm. 1987) that grubs, caterpillars,
termites, grasshoppers, and an unidentified larva are used as food by the Pende
tribe (the people are known as the Bapende) in the Bandundy Region (capital:
Kikwit). Specific observations were mainly in the vicinity of the village of
Kilembe and town of Mukedi. Caterpillars and grubs were available during the
dry season (June‑September), grasshoppers throughout the year. Kirinich
summarized her observations as follows:
Caterpillars were a very important source of protein at a time of the
year when there were few green vegetables available. They were usually fried in
palm oil and were tasty! Termites were eaten only in the winged stage. People
simply stood over a termite mound and caught them as they flew out. They were
eaten both raw (still alive) and cooked in palm oil. Grubs were sold in the
market on sticks, but I never saw how they were gathered. They weren't very
popular in my area. The unidentified larvae were thin and whitish and sold in
the market alive in baskets. Their appearance was not inviting. The
grasshoppers were difficult to catch and they were mainly sought after by
children who had the patience to stalk them.
Pamela
J. Boyle, PCV in Zaire (now Congo [Kinshasa]) from 1983 to 1985,
reported (pers. comm. 1987) the use of palm grubs, large crickets, red
ants, termites (both winged and unwinged), black and white striped
caterpillars, and cockroaches. Tribes observed included the Bakuba and Bakete
(Bantu tribes that migrated from south of the Angola border), and the Baluba
(Bantu tribe from central Zaire which has a lot of mixing with Arab traders).
Geographically, observations were primarily around Mweka, Kasai Occidental, 150
km north of Katanga on the main road through Ilebo and Kikwit to Kinshasa.
Termites were collected during the season when they were flying, crickets in
the wet spring, caterpillars at the end of the rainy season (May‑June),
ants when they came out to search for food (influenced by the moon?), and palm
grubs whenever a palm tree was harvested. It was usually the children that
captured the insects. The only "rearing" observed involved palm
grubs; when found in the base of the trees, they were allowed to remain until
they were large. The grubs were fried or ground up to make a sauce. Crickets
and cockroaches were eaten fried, with their legs removed. Caterpillars were
fried. Winged termites and ants were eaten alive or dried, while the soft white
termites were pounded to a pulp or a sauce.
It is
probable that the "large crickets" observed by Boyle were Brachytrupes
membranaceus, considered a delicacy in East Africa from Uganda to Zimbabwe.
Ann
DeLong, PCV from 1983 to 1985, observed the use of palm grubs,
caterpillars, flying and unwinged termites, and grasshoppers (pers. comm. 1987).
Palm grubs and caterpillars were sold in Kinshasa. Winged termites, used by the
Lulua tribe near the city of Kananga in the Kasai Occidental region, were
caught when they were attracted to the light of a lantern placed outside. The wings
were removed and they were eaten raw. Unwinged termites were collected by
inserting a piece of straw into one of the holes in the termite hill. They were
eaten raw or fried in palm oil. Grasshoppers, swarms of which invaded the
fields once a year, were collected by the Hutu tribe (observations near the
city of Goma in the Kivu region). Wings, tails and legs were removed and the
bodies were then fried in palm oil.
Chris
Allen, PCV from 1984 to 1986, commented as follows (pers. comm. 1987):
What interested me most
about insect consumption in Zaire was that while insects played a major role in
the diets of people all over the country, certain ethnic groups near the
Rwandan border considered eating insects disgusting. These groups ‑
Bashi, Batutsi, Balumde and a few others ‑ lived next to other groups
that did consume insects (e.g., Balega), but for the most part individuals had
never heard of the practice and were shocked when told about it. People
did eat grasshoppers, roasted in a fire, but never dreamed of eating the
termites, caterpillars or palm grubs that were 'haute cuisine' elsewhere in the
country.
Professor G. Parent, in Rwanda, has mentioned
(pers. comm. 1988) that there is no use of insects as food among
Rwandans, although Dr. Florence Dunkel mentioned (pers. comm. 1988)
that grasshoppers are eaten there.
Katya
Kitsa (1989) (as translated and reviewed by Dan Turk)
conducted a survey of household expenditures on edible insects over the course
of 9 months (September 1986 through May 1987) in Kananga, a city of over
200,000 people in Western Kasai Region, Zaire (now Congo (Kinshasa)). Based on the prices of insects in city
markets, he calculated the quantities of insects purchased. In the 237 households surveyed, 564 of the
2006 people represented purchased an average of 1331 kg of insects per
month. This amounts to 2360 g of
insects per person per month for the people who ate insects, or 663 g insects
per person per month for all people surveyed.
If accurate and representative, this represents at least 12,000 tons of
insects consumed in Kananga per year.
The relative quantities (weight basis) of various insects consumed were
termites 35%, caterpillars 30%, larvae [other] 23%, and grasshoppers 12%. The author noted that people in outlying areas
purchased more insects than those living nearer the city center. On a weight basis, the price of smoked
caterpillars was only 26% of the price of beef.
Over the
same nine month period a survey of insects sold in the six major rural markets
that supply Kananga with edible insects yielded information on the types and
seasonality of insects available in Kananga.
The people selling insects provided information covering the summer
months. Sixteen types of insects,
identified by local names, are described briefly: 9 caterpillars, 4 termites, 2
beetle larvae, and a grasshopper. Three
of these, soldier termites, beetle larvae from oil palms, and beetle larvae
from raphia palms, were sold live throughout the year. All others were seasonal though preservation
permitted some to remain in the markets for extended periods. More types of insects were available from
December to April than the rest of the year.
The
author calculated the dietary importance of insects in Kananga based on protein
content and quality compared with FAO/OMS dietary recommendations. According to his calculations, insects
satisfied all of the daily animal protein
requirements of the people who ate insects. Similarly, using regional animal production statistics, he
calculated that cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry and fish (apparently the
only animals for which data were available) satisfied only 37.5% of dietary
animal protein requirements in the region as a whole. Because of their potential to satisfy protein needs, he concluded
that insects "merit the attention of all people responsible for promoting
the improvement of our people's health: health workers, merchants, and
researchers." His recommendations
for increasing insect consumption in Kananga included nutritional education to
extirpate sociological and psychological constraints to insect consumption, and
examination of possibilities for the development of an insect flour for feeding
to children. (Turk states that
"Although the accuracy of Katya Kitsa's survey data is open to question,
it is clear that insects continue to contribute substantially to protein
nutrition in this part of Africa. Local
publication of this article is evidence that Zairians consider edible insects a
resource worth developing.")
Caputo (1991) presents a
colored photograph showing "caterpillars and palm grubs fresh off the
riverboat" covering a table in Kinshasa's central market. According to a newspaper article by Neil
Henry (Washington Post, May 10, 1991), these and other edible
insects are very much a part of Kinshasa's night life:
The hot band known as Masanka looked like some kind of single-celled
organism as it jammed at an outdoor pub here the other night, expanding in size
whenever anybody from the crowd felt the spirit to join in. . . . This infectiously
buoyant Zairian beat can be savored in the cite section of Kinshasa on any
night of the week - often starting as late as 2 a.m. - in clubs that range in
style from the bright-colored lights and well-dressed crowds in the O.K. Jazz
Club to down-home outdoor pubs featuring neighborhood youths honing their
skills on guitars, trumpets and bootle drums.
Beer, fried goat innards and insect delicacies such as termites,
caterpillars and palm grubs sauteed in spicy garlic sauce are the most popular
items on the menu.
Amy
Roda, a Peace Corps volunteer, reported (1991) that the
extent of edible insect use in the Zairian diet varies between the different
regions and even within the same region. There was relatively little use where
she was posted, in Bas Zaire in an area known as the Mayombe. Insects such as caterpillars and palm grubs
were served to her only on rare occasions.
One insect served was Biphatu, a kind of caterpillar which during
the dry season congregates inside orange silk packets. Roda mentions that, "By many, insects
are not considered food for people. . . It is difficult to say whether insects
are being reintroduced because other meat sources are decreasing as the
population grows and the forest diminishes, or if the strong western influence
will continue to hold sway." She mentions that although Biphatu are
not readily eaten in her area, they are collected and sold to merchants who
transport them to large cities such as Boma and Matadi. There, market women sell them, dry, by the
bar glass or tomato can.
Roda
found when visiting the Cateral, the area between Matadi and Kinshasa, and two
other regions in Zaire (now Congo (Kinshasa)), Bandundu and Kaisi occidental,
that insects were more frequently included in the diets. She states: "In the
local market one has a variety of textures and flavors to choose from. Live palm grubs can be had pretty much any
time, though I prefer the seasonal grasshoppers and termites. They are best when fried in palm oil with a
bit of hot pepper and salt. They are a
better complement to a cold beer than any 'Frito-Lay' product." In the Bandundu region insects are eaten
raw. When a mound of emerging termites is encountered, "all other planned
work is stopped, much to the frustration of the Volunteer." She was told that "a mouthful of live
termites tastes much like bacon."
The largest selection of insects can be found at the Grand Marche in
Kinshasa. They are brought in from all
the regions, both live and preserved. They are also regularly sold as a bar snack
in Kinshasa's fashionable night hot spot, the Matonge. Finally, relative to
fish culture, Roda mentions that nests of ants are usually used to attract
fingerlings to be "lift-netted" and transferred to other ponds. She states that, "Often after a couple
of years, the ant population is depleted making it difficult to harvest
fingerlings." Plankton currently
serves as the major food source for pond fish, but Roda notes that a simple and
low-cost cultivation of insects "would enhance production as well as aid
in the collection of fingerlings."
Tango
Muyay (1994) discusses the use of insects representing
a number of orders and families as remedies in Zairian folk medicine.
Coleoptera
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr., larva, adult (occasionally)
Ghesquiere
(1947) states that: "Natives of [Zaire] are very fond of
Rhynchophoridae and hunt them in a rather interesting manner: sticking their
ear against the palm tree, they recognize the right moment for harvesting by the
noise that the larvae make while nibbling away at the inner tissues of their
plant‑host." According to Bodenheimer
(1951: 186), Rhynchophorus phoenicis is the palmworm of tropical
Africa and the species about which Ghesquiere was writing.
According
to Chinn (1945), to track down the ivory-colored larvae (known as
"Mpose" in Kundu) in fallen palms the natives strike the trunk a
sharp blow, then whistle softly. If
larvae are in the tree, the natives claim to hear a fine stridulation in
response. Practically the whole fallen
palm is eventually invaded by the R. phoenicis larvae, and this occurs
more or less regularly the year round.
The succulent larvae and to a lesser extent the adults
("Linkoo" in Kundu) are eaten throughout the province. The larvae may be eaten raw with a little
bit of salt and pepper after washing and decapitation, or steamed in Nkongo
leaves, or cooked in a minimum of water.
They are always eaten alone, as a delicacy. "They have a taste like
light wine," according to Chinn.
The Bakela are great consumers of the larvae, because the harvest and
selling of the malafu was, in times past, their principal source of revenue,
and, as they did not climb palm trees, they were obliged to cut them down for
the wine harvest. Larvae were found to
contain 78% water, and with dry matter content of 47.4% protein and 52.4% fat
(p. 129; a small error in calculation seems apparent inasmuch as dry matter
constituents totalled 101.13%).
According to Chinn, the natives eat 250 g of the larvae at a time. They
also eat the adult beetles after first removing the head, legs, elytra and
wings, then smoking them.
Grubs or
palm grubs are mentioned (see Introduction) by Schebesta (1936, 1938), Adriaens
(1951), Allen (1987), Boyle (1987), DeLong (1987) and Kirinich (1987), Kitsa
(1989), Caputo (1991), Henry (1991), and Roda (1991). One vernacular name is mafundi (Adriaens 1951).
Also see Muyay (1981) under Miscellaneous Coleoptera.
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Gnathocera sp.
Goliathus sp., larva
Oryctes boas Fabr., larva, adult
Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva, adult
Platygenia (= Platygenis) barbata Afzelius, larva
The huge
grubs of Goliathus sp. (goliath beetle), which live in the swelling near
the roots of banana trees, are considered a gastronomic treat (Bequaert
1921). The grubs frequently measure 13‑14 cm in length. Platygenia
barbata larvae (mafulu, mafundu) and those of Gnathocera sp.
are mentioned by Adriaens (1951) (see Introduction).
Chinn (1945) listed, in addition to the two Oryctes above, Oryctes
rhinoceros, but this is in error as the species does not occur in Africa.
Both larvae and adults of Oryctes are eaten according to Chinn.
See also
Tango Muyay (1981) under Miscellaneous Coleoptera.
Miscellaneous Coleoptera
Tango
Muyay (1981) describes five types of edible larvae used
by the Yansi (pp. 114-119), four of which are beetle larvae. Two of these ("makul ba" and
"nseol") are associated with palm trees, one ("makul makul")
with dead trees and the other ("bengweri") with swamp plants. "Makul ba" develop into
"kebamwe" beetles which appear to be Rhynchophorus (drawing p.
109). Makul makul are eaten in large
quantities and reportedly liked by everybody as are bengweri larvae. As with caterpillars and adult beetles, when
larvae are found in small quantities, they are generally given to children.
Bengweri develop into "bensim," adult beetles which are also eaten,
mostly by children. According to Muyay, adult beetles are very important to the
Yansi. Four types are used,
"kial", "kwer", "kebamwe", and "besim"
(pp. 120-135). Kial appear to be (according to Turk) Augosoma sp.
(drawing p. 109) and are well-liked.
They appear in the dry season and can be collected around street lights
or by cutting down a vine to which they are attracted. Regarding kebamwe, a palm wine collector is
quoted as saying, "Kebamwe and their larvae are our preferred food. We
also like to give them to our children because they contain a lot of
protein" (p. 126).
Hemiptera
Nepidae (waterscorpions)
Tango
Muyay (1981) reports (pp. 151-158) that the Yansi eat
four types of aquatic insects, one of which (according to Turk) is a
waterscorpion (drawing p. 144). Aquatic
insects are eaten almost exclusively by women, who catch them mostly in small
quantities while fishing or soaking manioc in streams.
Homoptera
Cercopidae (spittlebugs)
Yansi
children eat "bentiey," which (according to Turk) appear to be
spittlebugs (Tango Muyay 1981, p. 117, drawings on pp. 103, 105).
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis mellifica adansonii Latr., larva
Meliponula bocandei Spin., larva
Trigona braunsi (Kohl), larva
Trigona erythra interposita Darchen, larva
Trigona lendliana Fr., larva
Trigona occidentalis Darchen, larva
Trigona richardsi Darchen, larva
Parent
et al (1978) defined the habitat of seven species of
bees that produce honey in the clear forest of southern Shaba and described the
physical and chemical characteristics of the honey produced. Although
apiculture is not practiced in southern Shaba, the average annual consumption
of honey per adult living in the clear forest is estimated at 15 liters. The
calorific values of the honey produced by the different species ranged from 231
to 283 per l00 g, except for a lower value, 176 calories, in one species. In
addition to Apis mellifica adansonii Latr., which is already
domesticated in other territories of Congo (Kinshasa), the authors call
attention to Meliponula bocandei Spin. as a candidate for possible
domestication and local apiculture.
Despite
the fact that the practice has been much criticized, honey is still harvested
by cutting down the tree, causing serious damage to the forest because of the
number of trees felled. Parent et al describe the harvest of honey and the use
of the larvae as follows (translation):
At the time of activities
in the forest, the villagers marked with a reference marker the swarms where
they are frequently brought by the indicator bird: Indicator indicator (Sparmann).
This bird guides man toward the swarm with its cries, receiving as retribution
of its services some cells tossed aside, some bee larvae or some gulps of honey
to swallow. The association of this bird with man had already been cited. . . .
The harvest of honey was performed in a cloud of smoke in order to reduce the
combativeness of the insects; to this end, a fire is lit at the foot of the
tree where the swarm is lodged, some armfuls of greens are thrown on it and in
no time a dense column of smoke begins to rise. The tree is then cut down and
the insects are again smoked out with the aid of a torch. Access to the
honeycombs is enlarged with an axe and then they are harvested. The empty
cells, of a dark brown color, are thrown out; those containing nymphs or larvae
are set aside and those of a light color (practically white) filled with honey
are gathered together in a vessel. The harvester, of course, has the right to
dispose of his booty as he pleases, but it really seems that the destination
and utilization of the different parts is traditionally established. The
villagers are very fond of larvae, thus they generally cannot resist the
pleasure of tasting some by chewing the operculated cell, the wax then being
spit out again. The remainder of the honeycombs containing the larvae is
brought to the village, then heated up in a vessel where the wax melts, thus
allowing the larvae to become isolated. These larvae are at last grilled, then
salted and eaten as a sidedish. The combs of white wax containing the honey are
broken up with a pestle and the honey is harvested by pressure or decantation.
The use of different categories of honey depends on its properties and the
quantity capable of being harvested.
Species
discussed by Parent et al, in addition to Apis m. adansonii (vernacular
name, shimu) and M. bocandei (kibonge), include Trigona braunsi
(Kohl) (solwe), T. erythra interposita Darchen (kipashi),
T. lendliana Fr. (kanyanta), T. occidentalis Darchen (mwande)
and T. richardsi Darchen (bungulwe). The vernacular term applied
to the bee in each case is also applied to its honey.
Bequaert
(1921) stated that, in the region of Garamba, the
nests of wild bees are sought, not only for their honey but for their larvae
and pupae which are roasted before being consumed. In the Ituri Forest, Christy
(1924: 40) reported that grubs, honey and pollen were eaten fresh
from pieces of honeycomb pulled from bees' nests. The empty nest was then
discarded.
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua F. Smith, winged adult
Oecophylla smaragdina longinoda (author?), larva, adult
Sternotornis sp., winged adult
Bequaert
(1913: 429; 1922: 329) noted that the large, winged
queens of Carebara vidua F. Smith which emerge in great numbers at
certain seasons from termite mounds are highly prized as delicacies in Congo
(Kinshasa), as they are in other parts of tropical Africa. Only the abdomen is
eaten, sometimes raw, sometimes fried, sometimes roasted.
Ants are
mentioned by Schebesta (1936) and by Boyle (1987) (see Introduction). The
winged adults of Sternotornis sp. are mentioned by Adriaens (1951) (see
Introduction).
Adults
and larvae of the weaver ant, O. smaragdina longinoda (known as
"Moomba" in Kundu) are eaten by natives from throughout the province
of Coquilhatville (Chinn 1945). The ants are abundant on fruit
trees. The larvae are soft and white
and their taste is sweet. The nest is
smoked out, then stripped of its silk and the adult ants and larvae are wiped
off, washed and dried in the sun. A paste is made from the mixture and then
steamed. Analysis of a mixture of adult
and larval ants revealed a water content of 73.5% and dry matter content of
48.3% protein and 12.0% fat.
Sphecidae (sphecoid wasps)
Sceliphron (= Pelopoeus) sp.
See
Adriaens (1951) in Introduction.
Vespidae (wasps, hornets)
Synagris sp.
The
nests of certain social wasps are sought for the same purpose as are those of
wild bees, collection of their larvae and pupae as well as their honey (Bequaert
1921). Synagris sp. (subfamily Eumeninae) is mentioned by Adriaens
(1951) (see Introduction).
Isoptera
Tihon
(1946b) conducted proximate and mineral analyses (Congo
[Kinshasa] Table 4; see Tihon pp. 867-868) on lightly grilled termites as sold
in the market at Kinshasa (0 fr 50 per small handful). They are known as donge
and "constitute a food that the majority of natives consume
voraciously." Tihon says
(translation): "They draw from it, moreover, a colorless oil, of good
quality, which would be excellent for use in frying; it would have even been
good enough for a European." Tihon
notes that the termites analyzed had a calorific value of 561 kcal/100 g,
placing them "among the richest foods, superior to the animal products
that we have studied and approximating the peanut." Tihon suggests that the use of termites,
along with caterpillars and adult and larval Coleoptera should be encouraged in
meeting the dietary needs of the inhabitants. It is noted that the emerging
swarms of alate individuals also furnish food for other animals, amphibians,
reptiles, insects, birds and farm animals. The termite nests are, in certain
areas, the property of the villages, showing the importance that is attached to
them. Some of the termites are eaten raw. Tihon says, "Who has not
observed at times some young individuals lying flat on their bellies in front
of the exit of small nests waiting for the arrival of these winged insects in
order to swallow them immediately."
Hegh
(1922) described methods of harvesting termites
and their preparation as food in the various districts of the country. Hegh
attests that the taste of roasted termites is suitable to the European palate.
[This paper awaits translation; Bodenheimer 1951: 147‑151 summarizes it.]
"Twe"
is the Yansi word for termite; it means "let's go" (Muyay 1981). They were given this name by Yansi ancestors
in recognition of the need for fast action in catching the winged adults as
they precipitously leave their mounds.
The Yansi recognize several categories based on species and castes. "Twe musiem" are collected from the
large mounds and, according to Muyay, their protein and delicious taste make
them a good meal for children. Also, according to Muyay, 20-60 kg may be
collected from a single mound, although sometimes a mound will contain less
than 5 kg. When dried, termites can be
kept for several months. Some people
sell dried twe musiem in the cities. Several
other types of termites are collected, including two kinds of soldiers, a black
type found in the forest and a brown type found in the savanna. Soldiers are often cooked with mushrooms or
manioc leaves and make them taste delicious, according to the author. Queens collected by the women are usually
presented to one of their husbands who in turn gives it to the little
children. If there is a nursing child
in the family, the queen is usually reserved for him/her.
Consumption
of termites (various forms) is mentioned (see Introduction) by Schebesta
(1938), Schebasta 1940), Allan (1987), Boyle (1987), DeLong (1987) and Kirinich
(1987), Katya Kitsa (1989), Henry (1991) and Roda (1991).
Termitidae
Bellicositermes spp., winged adults, soldiers
Macrotermes (= Termes) natalensis Haviland, winged adult, soldier
Macrotermes spp., winged adults, soldiers
Pseudacanthotermes (= Acanthotermes)
spiniger Sjostedt, winged adult
Termes gabonensis (author?), winged adult, soldier
Termites
are prized in Congo (Kinshasa) as they are throughout tropical Africa. Bequaert
(1921) recounts that, "So anxious are the Azende and Mangbetu of the
Uele district to secure these so‑called ants that termite hills are
considered private property, and during the harvest of the insects, fights,
often resulting fatally, occur between rival claiments." Pseudacanthotermes (= Acanthotermes)
spiniger and Macrotermes (= Termes) natalensis (Haviland) are two of
the important species. Bequaert (p. 196) describes an ingenious method of
harvesting the winged sexual forms:
They tightly enfold the termite mound in several layers of the broad
leaves of a marantaceous wood reed, the interstices soon being closed with
earth by the termites, which usually join the inner leaves to the nest. A
projecting pocket, built on one side of the leaf cover, serves as a trap, for
when the winged termites begin to swarm, they find no egress and finally drop
in masses into the pocket from which they are scooped out. . . . In other
instances the nests themselves are dug up to obtain the workers, soldiers, and
huge, fat queens, which form a dainty titbit when broiled over the fire. At
Banalia along the Aruwimi River in December, 1913, I was rather surprised to
find, among many strange articles of food offered for sale by the natives at
the weekly market, baskets of dried soldier termites.
Among
the inhabitants of the Ubangi, winged adults of M. natalensis and T.
gabonensis are known as "Ndonge," the soldiers as
"Kalo" (Chinn 1945). M. natalensis is very common, they
build huge nests, and the winged forms swarm during March-April at nightfall,
often after a hard rain. The soldier termites are collected the year
round. Chinn describes methods of
collecting both the winged forms and the soldiers. The winged forms have large fatty reserves, and, according to
Chinn, "the natives are wild about them." The termites are washed and put out to dry in the sun for 3-4
days. The winged forms are slightly
grilled to remove their wings. They are
eaten with bananas or chikwangues, either grilled and whole, or reduced to
paste in a mortar. Or they are
sometimes added to meat or fish as part of an ordinary meal. Chinn says the Ndonges "are a good food
that tastes like hazelnuts." The
soldier forms are low in fat, and the natives find them easy to digest. Proximate analysis of winged M.
natalensis revealed a dry matter content of 33.06% protein and 54.68% fat. T.
gabonensis soldiers were 72.90% water, and, on a dry matter basis, 37.05%
protein and 3.00% fat.
Winged adults and soldiers of Bellicositermes
spp. and Macrotermes spp. are eaten (see Heymans & Evrard 1970
in Introduction).
Lepidoptera
Some 40
km northeast of Lubumbashi in southern Congo (Kinshasa), Malaisse and Parent
(1980) found that, among the many insects consumed, caterpillars are the
most important both in quantity and diversity. At least 35 species are
consumed, 26 of which could be specifically identified after rearing (see Congo
[Kinshasa] Table 5; Malaisse & Parent Table 1). Most of these species are
univoltine and show strong "seasonality" (Malaisse 1974).
Malaisse and Parent constructed taxonomic keys for identification of the
caterpillars and supplied data on foodplants and season of harvest (see Congo
[Kinshasa] Table 6; data drawn from Malaisse & Parent Tables 1 and 2).
Congo (Kinshasa) Table 7 (data from Malaisse & Parent Table 1) reveals that
20 of the species are available only during March and April and that a total of
29 and 32 species are harvestable during those two months, respectively, which
corresponds with the "late rains" in southern Congo (Kinshasa). Fewer
species are available for harvest in other months, and none from November
through January, which, however is the period of heavy harvest in neighboring
Zambia. Other studies indicate that the season of maximum caterpillar harvest
varies considerably from region to region.
According
to Malaisse and Parent, certain villagers are very knowledgeable about hosts
for the edible species and the season when each is ready for harvest. Not
infrequently, a branch containing many young caterpillars of an edible species
will be cut off, transported to the vicinity of the village and attached to a
tree of the same species. Malaisse and Parent provide detailed information on
how the various caterpillars are prepared prior to being either roasted on
heated sheet metal, cooked in boiling water, or fried in oil. Salt or,
possibly, red peppers may be added. When part of a harvest is to be preserved,
the caterpillars are either smoked or cooked by boiling in salt water, followed
by draining and drying.
Malaisse
and Parent analyzed caterpillars that were prepared in a manner identical to
that which precedes their culinary preparation, then dehydrated. As shown in
Congo (Kinshasa) Table 8 (Malaisse & Parent Table 4), kcal/100 g dry weight
averaged 457, ranging from 397 to 543. Crude protein content averaged 63.5%,
ranging from 45.6 to 79.6%. Most species proved a good source of phosphorus and
an excellent source of iron, 100 g averaging for 21 species 335% of the daily
requirement for the latter. One species of unidentified Limacodidae was, for an
insect, unusually high in calcium, containing 1.6 g/l00 g of insect. The
samples analyzed included 17 species of Saturniidae, five of Notodontidae, and
one of Limacodidae. Professor Malaisse (pers. comm. 1987) noted that
caterpillars are always in demand in southern Shaba.
Bequaert
(1921) reported that at least six species of
lepidopterous larvae are used by the Medje, including the saturniid, Micragone
herilla, and two undetermined species of ceratocampids. The Medje also use
the larvae of the psychid, Clannia moddermanni, which live within large
silken bags that they spin, and the larvae of Anaphe, which become
gregarious (a dozen or more) when full‑grown and spin a communal silk
nest in which they spin cocoons and pupate. These larvae are much-liked but
adversely affect some individuals, producing "prostration" for as
long as two or three days. The Medje also diligently seek a caterpillar
(species unknown) called ebbo which, when dried and smoked, can be
preserved for months.
Masseguin
and Antonini (1938) discuss caterpillars (vide
Malaisse and Parent 1980) [copy not yet available, and awaiting translation].
Chinn
(1945) reported that there are more than 40
species of edible caterpillars ("Beto" in Kundu, "Mbinzu"
in Ngombe), the majority of them Saturniidae, in the province of
Coquilhatville, and the natives throughout the province eat them. The scientific and vernacular names of 31
host plants and vernacular names of the caterpillars feeding on them are given
in a table (pp. 123-124). The main caterpillar season is the "big dry
season," with the majority of species reaching harvest size in July and
August, although certain species are harvested during the "short dry season"
and others in September and December.
Reserve supplies are smoked, extending the caterpillar season by two
months. Caterpillars are found in great abundance on trees in the forest, and
Chinn provides extensive data on how they replace meat or fish in the
indigenous menu. In fact, the fishing tribes that rarely have occasion to
harvest caterpillars themselves go to their neighbors, inhabitants of the
forested regions, to obtain them.
According
to Chinn, the natives are very fond of caterpillars, especially when they are
fresh. To prepare them, they eviscerate
the caterpillar to eliminate intestinal contents, then scrape it against the
cutting edge of a knife to remove spines, hairs and the chitinous outer covering. They may then be steamed in leaves of
Nkongo, or prepared with bosaka or mafuta, along with legumes. According to Chinn, a native eats 400 g of
fresh caterpillars per meal, and they are eaten very frequently, especially in
season. Tests on a Nudaurelia
species found 62.1% protein and 16.1% lipids on a dry weight basis, but reduced
digestibility, only 50%, thus lessening their dietary value. The small
caterpillars are the least indigestible and the natives eat them in great
quantities. Fresh, caterpillars average
about 75% water.
Finally,
Chinn describes four types of diets among tribes in the province: fish diet,
meat diet, mixed fish and meat, and caterpillar and mushroom diet. The
caterpillar-mushroom diet is the diet of the Bolenda, who live 50 km from the
nearest river. They neither hunt nor
fish, and they eat meat or fish only
one or two times per week, one or the other. Caterpillars are their main source of animal protein during the
fresh caterpillar season, that is, for three months, extended an additional two
months using smoked caterpillars. The
rest of the year, i.e., for seven months, they eat mushrooms, legumes, oil and
starchy foods. The caloric value of a
meal of caterpillars is 2200 calories; a meal of mushrooms is 1752 calories,
the average for the year reaching only 1939 calories per day. Of the four diets, the caterpillar-mushroom
diet is the least adequate nutritionally, both in animal protein intake and
energy production. Actually, caterpillars are included in the other diets. For example, with the fish diet, during the
fresh caterpillar season, July-August, caterpillars very often replace fish.
Tihon
(1946a) analyzed caterpillars [this paper awaits
translation].
Data by Adriaens
(1953) on Cirina forda, Elaphrodes lactea, and two species of
Nudaurelia revealed crude protein content ranging from 52.3% to 68.3%
(dry weight) and fat content from 1.7% to 13.7%. (Note: this paper has not yet
been seen.)
Lambrechts
et al (1956) presented analytical data on a species of
caterpillar. (This paper has not yet been seen.)
Lambrechts
and Bernier (1961) deal with caterpillars.
(Note: This paper has not yet been seen.)
In the
midst of national economic decline, Anon. (1991) reported that,
"Much of the country was cut out of basic commerce: visitors to one town
recently found only fried caterpillars on the hotel menu."
Tango
Muyay (1981) describes 33 species of caterpillars used
by the Yansi. Most species feed on
trees and shrubs, but a few feed on grasses and one each on a fern and two
kinds of palm trees. In contrast to other
peoples of Africa who base the names of their edible caterpillars on the names
of their specific host plants, the Yansi refer to trees by the names of the
caterpillars that feed on them.
Caterpillars are mainly collected by women and children, but men are
beginning to harvest them for sale in the cities. Muyay emphasizes the importance of caterpillars in the diets of
children, noting for at least eight species that most of the caterpillars are
reserved for children or eaten mostly by them.
Caterpillars that are not abundant are preferentially given to children
(p. 56). That children enjoy eating
caterpillars is apparent from several children's songs. For example:
"Father you have to give me some 'milee' caterpillars. . . . Look at all
the other children with milee caterpillars that their fathers gave them. . . .
I'm going to bother you until you give me some" (p. 57).
To
ensure an abundant supply of edible caterpillars, the onset of harvest is
regulated through the use of a fetish called "kehal" (pp. 24,
76). When the chief notices young
caterpillars of important species beginning to develop, he places the kehal in
the forest where they are found. No one is allowed to harvest the caterpillars
until they have reached near-maximum size and the kehal is removed. In cases
where the kehal was violated, the chief levied heavy fines. In some cases Yansi laws have been enacted
that prohibit the cutting of tree branches as a means of harvesting
caterpillars from certain species of trees (p. 73). Many caterpillar species are described as well-liked or tasting
delicious (e.g., "minsweyi" p. 44, "mimen" p. 50,
"mitoon" p. 113). Yansi women sometimes set fires in the savanna to
promote fresh regrowth that will serve to promote an abundance of the minsweyi
caterpillars. Some edible caterpillars
are not esteemed by all Yansi. Some people eat "mibam," which taste
sour, only because they are abundant and appear at a time of year when other
foods are scarce (p. 73). Species with
dangerous hairs ("misweswe" p. 29, "mimpoo" p. 29, and
"nkool nzil" p. 111) are not given to children. The hairs of these
species must be singed off prior to cooking.
Failure to do so can provoke swelling of the throat, possibly leading to
death (p. 32). One caterpillar species
is reported to cause headaches (p. 22).
Others
who have mentioned consumption of "caterpillars" include (see
Introduction) Schebesta (1936, 1938), Schebasta (1940), Adriaens (1951),
Heymans and Evrard (1970), Allan (1987), Boyle (1987), DeLong (1987), Kirinich
(1987), Katya Kitsa (1989), Caputo (1991), Henry (1991) and Roda (1991).
Ceratocampidae
Two
species of ceratocampid larvae (see Bequaert 1921 in Introduction).
Hesperiidae (skippers)
Caliades (= Coliades) libeon Druce, larva
Dartevelle
(1951) discussed C. libeon [the paper
awaits translation]. See also Adriaens
(1951) in Introduction.
Limacodidae (slug caterpillars)
A
limacodid larva (see Malaisse and Parent 1980 in Introduction and Congo
(Kinshasa) Tables 5 and 6).
Noctuidae (noctuids)
Nyodes (= Elacodes) prasinodes Prout, larva
See
Malaisse and Parent (1980) in Introduction and Congo (Kinshasa) Tables 5 and 6.
Adriaens (1951) also mentioned noctuid larvae (see Introduction).
Notodontidae (prominants)
Anaphe panda (Boisd.), larva
Anaphe sp., larva
Antheua (= Pheosigna) insignata Gaede, larva
Drapetides (= Loptoperyx) uniformis Swinhoe, larva
Elaphrodes (= Onophalera) lactea Gaede, larva
Rhenea mediata Walker, larva
Malaisse
et al (1969) analyzed caterpillars of Elaphrodes
(= Onophalera) lactea Gaede, known as the tunkubiu, and compared
their data with those from previous studies on Congo (Kinshasa) caterpillars
(Congo [Kinshasa] Table 9; see their Table 1, pp. 34-35). In addition to the
high protein content of caterpillars in general, the authors note in particular
the high lipid content of E. lactea, 29.6% of dry weight, or more than
twice as high as values reported for most other species. Although the harvest
of E. lactea is seasonal, they constitute a significant addition to the
protein supply of the rural people, and, in the opinion of the authors this
should be considered in determining forest protection policies regarding this
species which is an important forest defoliator.
Malaisse
and Parent (1980) (see Introduction and Congo [Kinshasa] Tables 5 and 6)
mention larvae of Anaphe panda, Antheua (= Pheosigna) insignata Gaede),
Drapetides (= Loptoperyx) uniformis (Swinhoe), E. lactea, Rhenea
mediata (Walker) and three unidentified species of notodontids. Adriaens
(1951) also mentioned notodontid larvae {see Introduction). Bequaert (1921)
reported consumption of an Anaphe sp. larva (see above under
Lepidoptera)
Nymphalidae (brush‑footed
butterflies)
Adriaens
(1951) mentions nymphalid larvae (see Introduction).
Psychidae (bagworm moths)
Clania moddermanni (author?), larva
Eumeta cervina Druce, larva
Eumeta rougeoti Bourgogne, larva
Peigler (1994) notes that, in the Denver Museum of Natural History,
there is a cocoon of either Eumeta cervina or E. rougeoti from
Congo (Kinshasa), that was part of an assortment of fetishes used by a witch
doctor. The cocoon is 5 cm long.
According to J. Bourgogne (personal communication to Peigler), the larvae of Eumeta
are eaten by natives in several African countries. Also see Bequaert (1921) under Lepidoptera above.
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Athletes gigas Sonthonnax, larva
Athletes semialba Sonthonnax, larva
Bunaea alcinoe Stoll (= caffraria), larva
Bunaeopsis aurantiaca Rothschild (= hersilia), larva
Cinabra hyperbius Westwood, larva
Cirina forda Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia hecate Rougeot (= nictitans), larva
Gonimbrasia richelmanni Weymer, larva
Gonimbrasia zambesina Walker, larva
Goodia kuntzei Dewitz, larva
Gynanisa maia ata Strand, larva
Imbrasia dione Fabr., larva
Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva
Imbrasia macrothyris Rothschild (= lubumbashii), larva
Imbrasia rubra Bouvier, larva
Imbrasia spp., larvae
Imbrasia truncata (author?), larva
Lobobunaea saturnus Fabr., larva
Melanocera parva Rothschild, larva
Micragone (= Cyrtogone) cana Aurivillius, larva
Micragone herilla Westw., larva
Nudaurelia oyemensis (author?), larva
Pseudanthara discrepans Butler, larva
Tagoropsis flavinata Walker (= hanningtoni), larva
Urota sinope Westw., larva
Malaisse
and Parent (1980) report the consumption of numerous species
of saturniid larvae (see above and Congo (Kinshasa) Tables 5 and 6). Bequaert
(1921) mentioned Micragone herilla (Westw.) larvae (see above under
Lepidoptera). Chinn (1945) analyzed (proximate analysis) a Nudaurelia
species and found 62.1% protein and 16.1% lipids on a dry weight basis (see
above under Lepidoptera). Adriaens (1951) mentioned Imbrasia spp. larvae
(see Introduction). Adriaens (1953) mentioned two species of saturniid larvae
(see above under Lepidoptera).
LeLeup
and Daems (1969) published a very valuable paper on the
edible caterpillars of the Kwango, considered to be one of the poorest regions
of the country from the standpoint of protein resources. The authors say (translation, p. 1):
Large game having become very scarce, it is fish, and especially
caterpillars, of which certain species abound, that constitute the most
important sources of protein for local consumption. . . . Caterpillars are not
only an important source of protein for local consumption, but they also bring
in a substantial income to these disadvantaged regions. In particular, we
mention the biological value of protein from preserved Mingola caterpillars
that is on the order of 70%, thus entirely comparable to that of fresh
meat.
Commercialized dried caterpillars in the Kwango district averaged 185 tons per year
for the five-year period, 1954-1958. To
this must be added tonnage sold privately to Bapende retailers, as well as
local consumption, bringing the dried caterpillar production to an estimated
280-300 tons per year. The study
described was commissioned by the territorial administration to investigate
whether recent fluctuations and reduced annual tonnage of the most economically
important species might be due to badly timed brush-burning.
The
authors state that the number of species of caterpillars eaten by the
indigenees of the districts of Kwango and Kwilu certainly exceeds 30, almost
all of which belong to the family Saturniidae.
Eight species are of preponderant importance, for only three of which the
scientific names are specified. Many of the other species are either very
localized or make only irregular appearances, thus playing a secondary role in
the local diet and in commerce.
Cirina
forda larvae, called "Makoso" by both the Kipende
and the Kitshok, are found in wooded savannah where they feed on the tree,
"Mikoso" (Kipende) or "Mikwatshi" (Kitshok) (Erythrophleum
africanum?). The larvae are
abundant and are harvested in September.
Pupation is underground. This
species, together with the next-listed, "Masese," are collectively
known by the natives as "Mangola."
These two species account for most of the exports, about 40% of the
annual harvest of Mangola consisting of Makosa (C. forda) and 60%
consisting of Masese. Masese larvae
feed on the "Misese" tree (Burkea afrikana?) in wooded
savannah and are harvested in February.
They are very abundant and, as stated above, an important export
item. Pupation is underground.
The
third most important species for export is Bunaeopsis aurantiaca Rothschild. The larvae are known as "Mambula"
(Kipende) or "Makunga" (Kitshok) and feed on a low perennial woody
plant known as "Mikia" (Kipende) or "Mitongo" (Kitshok)
which occurs in the steppes biotope (open high plateau). Harvest is in October.
Pupation is underground. The
brush-burning recommendations of LeLeup and Daems are aimed primarily at
protecting the three preceding species.
The only other important edible species which they identify by
scientific name is Pseudanthera discrepans Butler, the larvae of which
are found in gallery forest and feed on a tree called "Mumbula"
(Kipende) or "Mulengo" (Kitshok).
It is relatively rare but capable of massive, if fleeting, appearances. Harvest is in January-February. Pupation is
aerial. In discussing the biology and
ecology of the edible caterpillars, the investigators note that in a given
region where the caterpillars swarm in abundance in a given year, they are
usually much reduced the following year by the intense proliferation of
parasites.
LeLeup and Daems state that setting brush
fires at the wrong time can be disastrous to edible caterpillar populations and
they cite some past examples. Fires can
be set only in the dry season which, in the region studied, extends from the
beginning of May to the end of August (Congo [Kinshasa] Fig. 1; see The Food
Insects Newsletter 4(2): 2, Fig. 1, 1991, adapted from LeLeup &
Daems). The authors conclude that, in
wooded savannah, the optimum dates for setting brush fires are June 5 in areas
where "Makoso" predominates, and June 10 where "Masese"
predominates. Fire setting should be banned after June 15. The underground pupae, about 5 cm deep, are
somewhat protected from fire if 1) the ground surface is relatively denuded ,
which is usually the case at the base of the trees where the pupae are located,
and 2) if the heat is not too great.
This is why, according to the authors, in the wooded savannah where fires have much stronger intensity
than on the high plains, fires in July-August when the undergrowth is very dry
must be outlawed. This is all the more
urgent because this is the time when the Makoso are in the egg or young
caterpillar stage (Zaire Fig. 1) and they are subject to destruction in masse. As the adults appear in the second half of
June, this justifies the ban on setting fires in the wooded savannah after June
15.
The
situation is different in the high plains where the vegetation is lower, the
fire moves more rapidly, and the ground does not heat up as much. The optimum date for setting fires in the steppes,
relative to "Makunga," is July 10 with a leeway of 10 days earlier or
later. Brush fires in the steppes must
be banned (1) from July 20 to August 31 in order not to destroy the freshly
emerged adults or their eggs, and (2) from May 1 to June 30, so that foliation
after the fire is not too advanced (host leaves too tough) when the young
caterpillars emerge.
Leaf
toughness is also a factor relative to the "Makoso." To burn in the month of May would make the
reconstituted foliage of the "Mikoso" too tough by the time the young
caterpillars emerge during the second half of July. The "Masese" are much less sensitive to fire because
they spend the entire dry season in the pupal stage. They would suffer from fires in July and August, however, because
of the high heat intensity of fire in wooded savannah during those driest
months.
In
addition to optimum times for burning, LeLeup and Daems made several other
recommendations aimed at avoiding the dwindling of the "Mangolo"
biologic stock: 1) To enforce the ban on felling trees in order to harvest the
caterpillars; 2) To forbid the increasing practice of harvesting pupae; 3) To
encourage resowing attempts on a massive scale by collection of eggs prior to
burning; and 4) To create "reserves" of some small wooded savannahs,
in which all harvest for purposes of consumption would be forbidden.
Three
species of saturniid caterpillars (Nudaurelia oyemensis, Imbrasia truncata,
Imbrasia epimethea) prepared by the traditional techniques (smoking and
drying) were analyzed for vitamins by Kodondi et al (1987) (Congo
(Kinshasa) Table 10; see Kodondi et al Table I). Values for vitamins B2 and
pantothenic acid were high, but B1 and B6 were low compared to National Academy
of Sciences nutritional recommendations. Feeding trials of 4‑weeks'
duration using 21-day‑old Wistar C.F. rats confirmed that the vitamins
supplied by the caterpillars are sufficient to allow proper growth of young
rats, except for vitamins B1 and B6 (Congo [Kinshasa] Table 11; see Kodondi et
al Table II).
Sphingidae (sphinx or hawk moths)
Under
the name "Manzinga," the natives of Kwango include at least two
edible species; they are not congeneric (LeLeup and Daems 1969). Each species is probably monophagous, one
feeding on "Miseba," the other on "Dundu." These are low, perennial woody plants found
in the steppes biotope where they are frequently grouped together. The Miseba has clear sap; the Dundu is a latex
plant. The larvae are fairly abundant
and there are three harvests per year.
Pupation is subterranean.
Adriaens
(1951) mentioned consumption of sphingid larvae (see Introduction).
Family unknown
In
Kwango, according to LeLeup and Daems (1969),
"Tumbinzu" larvae [probably Saturniidae] sometimes make
extraordinarily massive, but usually fleeting, appearances, thus a lack of
commercial interest in this species. It
feeds preferably on "Makaka," but also on other Graminaceae in the
steppes biotope. Months of harvest are
February-March and May-June. Pupation is in the ground.
"Makutia"
(Kipende) or "Mapatula" (Kitshok) larvae [probably Notodontidae] are
found in gallery forest on the tree known as "Mumbunze (Kipende) or
"Tshimbunzi" (Kitshok) (LeLeup and Daems 1969). Harvest is in March. These are social caterpillars that pupate
aerially in a common cocoon.
Malaisse
and Parent (1980) reported consumption of two unidentified species of
lepidopterous larvae (see above and Congo [Kinshasa] Tables 5 and 6).
Miscellaneous Lepidoptera
Denis (1960) [This paper, pp. 154-155, awaits translation.]
The
information by Denis formed the basis for a discussion of caterpillar husbandry
by Miracle (1967, pp. 190-191):
The Holo practice an interesting form of insect husbandry that partly
supports an active commerce with Kinshasa . . . in dried and smoked caterpillars. Early in the dry season a carefully selected parcel of savanna is
burned. Female butterflies are
attracted to the burned patches in which grass is greener than in the
surrounding savanna, and lay their eggs.
As the eggs hatch the young caterpillars begin to feed on the pasture
created for them. When they start to
crawl out of the pasture a band is burned around, and the process is repeated
until they are grown . . . They are
then killed , dried, smoked, and are ready for market. . . Denis underscores
the importance of caterpillars as a cash earner . . . : 'In season , during the
month of September, the Portuguese of Leopoldville come and buy them by the
truckload in south Kwango and resell them at a large profit on the markets of the
capital [Kinshasa]. The consumers who
fancy this delicacy do not hesitate to pay five francs for a cup of
caterpillars. These Lepidoptera larvae
are the delicacies of connoisseurs, the equal of caviar, snails, or truffles
among the European gourmets.'
Kimuha
Lohande (1990) stated regarding reforestation in Kananga
(translation): "In short, Acacia auriculiformis will constitute the
only forest species of our reforested areas.
However, we would have preferred finding a local species and especially
a species bearing edible caterpillars.
It would be in the interest of many more people than Acacia.
Orthoptera
Bredo
(1945) presented analytical data on a grasshopper [this paper
has not yet been seen]. Adriaens (1951), Allan (1987), DeLong (1987), Kirinich
(1987), Kitsa (1989) and Roda (1991) all mention qrasshoppers (see
Introduction).
Acrididae (short‑horned
grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris)
septemfasciata Serville, adult
Homoxyrrhepes punctipennis Walker, nymph, adult
Locusta migratoria migratorioides Reiche & Fairemaire, adult
Bouvier
(1945: 43‑44) discussed the locusts, Cyrtacanthacris (=
Nomadacris) septemfasciata and Locusta migratorioides, which
sometimes occurred in mixed swarms with the former predominating, as follows
(translation):
When in 1931 we saw our
first cloud of migratory locusts in the province of Lomami, 20 years had passed
since the last appearance of these insects. The oldest blacks remembered the
last invasion very well, which was for them, as were all the locust migrations,
a period of food abundance. It is that the cultivation is very spread out and
that the acridiens most often attack the brush, the graminees [cereals, prairie
grasses, bamboo, sugar cane, etc.], and different bushes. Hardly any corn
planting is destroyed, except if by accident. Manioc, the staple food, is not,
or is very slightly, attacked by the locusts, probably because of the
(cyanhydrique) acid contained in the manioc's bitter sap.
The cultivation being
hardly ruined, the locusts form a very appreciated food supplement for the
blacks. The locusts are smoked or cooked in palm oil, whole, especially at the
beginning of the invasions. The fact is that the blacks of Lomami are very fond
of insects of all kinds: different caterpillars living on a mimosa; termites,
which are captured in tons at the time of swarming of the winged males and
females; and grasshoppers, which are hunted, in ordinary times, by bow, with
special bamboo arrows with four divergent points.
At the time of the locust
migration, the quantity of insects is such that it is easy, with very little
trouble, to really stock up. The first meal at the time of the locusts'
appearance is hard to describe. The amount of insects ingested whole is such
that the locusts' feet, with their sharp spines on the tibias, can cause some
real blockages with complete intestinal occlusion, which is fatal without
surgical intervention. After a certain time, these accidents become rarer,
because the blacks take off the feet and wings before cooking the locusts in
palm oil.
The black is not the only
one to treat himself to the acridian migration bonanza. Monkeys of all types
hurry to the bushes invaded by insects that rest, for example, at nightfall.
They stock up by stuffing their jowls and by enclosing in their four hands as
many insects as possible. For monkeys, too, their gluttony can be fatal to
them. We have had the chance to autopsy several monkeys dead of intestinal
occlusion, due to masses of acridian feet mixed in.
Birds of prey and 'stilted' birds (e.g. cranes) of all sorts follow the
clouds of locusts and likewise make them an object of intense consumption.
A 'cloud' of migratory
locusts always has something grandiose and imposing about it. On the great
plains of Lomami, in the clear sky, the swarms recognize each other from very
great distances, in the form of a violet cloud. This hue is produced by the
color of the lower wings of the nomad locusts (Nomadacris septemfasciata).
Moreover, the clouds are not always exclusively formed by a single species. We
have often seen mixed swarms, with a much lower percentage of migratory locusts
(Locusta migratorioides).
After their massive
migrations of 1931, the locusts more or less established themselves in the vast
region of Lomami . . . . The masses in migration often rested at night on a
small plateau near the station: the ground and bushes were covered to such a
degree that all the vegetation had taken on the reddish glints of the nomad
locusts. The nights being relatively cold, it was scarcely 9:00 a.m. when the
migratory masses restarted their flight . . . .
Chinn (1945) reported that L.
migratoria migratorioides ("Basalankata" in Kundu) are captured
from passing swarms by using baskets or nets.
The wings and legs are removed before smoking the locusts in Nkongo
leaves. They are eaten with bananas and
chikwangues. The swarms pass through in
July-September and January-March.
Heymans
and Evrard (1970) reported consumption of Homoxyrrhepes punctipennis adults
and nymphs (see Introduction).
Miscellaneous Acrididae
According
to Tango Muyay (1981), grasshoppers (pp. 147-150) are not
an important food for the Yansi. They
formerly ate only four species but, now, under the influence of their neighbors
the Mbala, who eat many more species of grasshoppers, the Yansi eat additional
species. The new species are collected
dead following savanna fires. The four
named species are all migratory. One, "mayaay" is no longer found in
the area, while another, "mieyi," has become quite rare. The other
two species are mostly eaten by children.
Blattidae (cockroaches)
Consumption
of cockroaches was reported by Boyle (1987) (see Introduction).
Gryllidae (crickets)
Brachytrupes membranaceus Drury
Tango
Muyay (1981) describes two kinds of crickets eaten by
the Yansi. One is probably B.
membranaceus (according to Turk).
Muyay reports that they are especially abundant where women have left
manioc root peelings on which the crickets feed. Children dig up some young crickets but most are captured after
they reach maturity in November and December and again when the second
generation matures in May. They are
collected by digging them out of their burrows with hoes, by hunting at night
with lamps, and by sliding a small noose down their burrows. Reportedly, a
woman can catch 50 to 80 crickets per day.
The
other edible cricket is called "betel musir," which means black
cricket. They are found in large numbers in the forests in February after the
main caterpillar harvest is over. A
woman may catch 300-400 or more crickets in a single night. When many are
caught, some are preserved by smoke-drying.
Traders buy them for sale in the large towns.
The use
of crickets was reported by Adriaens (1951) and Boyle (1987) (see
Introduction).
Tettigoniidae (long‑horned
grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) nitidula (author?) (= nitidulus), adult
Ruspolia sp., adult
Bequaert
(1921) reported that, in the northeastern corner of Congo
(Kinshasa), the Logo enjoy a grasshopper belonging to the genus Ruspolia (=
Homorocoryphus). Heymans and Evrard (1970) reported consumption of adults
of Ruspolia nitidula (= nitidulus) (see Introduction).
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Chapter 16 of The Human Use of Insects as a Food
Resource: A Bibliographic Account in Progress, by Gene R. De Foliart, posted on
website July, 2002
Malaisse, F. 1997. Se nourrir en foret claire africaine. Approche
ecologique et nutritionelle. Gembloux, Belgium: Les Presses Agronomiques de
Gembloux, 384 pp. (Insects, pp. 198-241) (Translation needed for pp. 198-241)
P. 18: Hegh (1922) needs translation (pp. 669-678)
P. 21: Masseguin and Antonini (1938) not seen yet; translation of pp.
133-145 needed
P. 21: Tihon (1946a) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 21: Adriaens (1953) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 21: Lambrechts et al (1956) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 21: Lambrechts and Bernier (1961) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 21: Anonymous (1991), volume ?
P. 22: Dartevelle (1951) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 27: Denis (1960, pp. 154-155) awaits translation
P. 28: Bredo (1945) not yet seen and needs translation
P. 30: Bequaert (1913); need title and journal