Chapter
16
CENTRAL
AND EASTERN AFRICA: CONGO (Kinshaza)
(Formerly Zaire)
Taxa and life stages consumed
Curculionidae
(weevils, snout beetles)
Rhynchophorus
phoenicis Fabr., larva, adult (occasionally)
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Gnathocera sp.
Goliathus sp., larva
Oryctes boas Fabr., larva,
adult
Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva,
adult
Platygenia (=
Platygenis) barbata Afzelius, larva
Several spp.
apparently
Nepidae (waterscorpions)
A nepid sp.
Cercopidae
(spittlebugs)
A cercopid sp.
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis mellifica adansonii Latr., larva
Meliponula bocandei Spin., larva
Trigona braunsi (Kohl), larva
Trigona erythra interposita Darchen, larva
Trigona lendliana Fr., larva
Trigona occidentalis Darchen, larva
Trigona richardsi Darchen, larva
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua F. Smith, winged adult
Oecophylla smaragdina longinoda (author?), larva, adult
Sternotornis sp., winged adult
Sphecidae (sphecoid wasps)
Sceliphron (= Pelopoeus) sp.
Vespidae (wasps, hornets)
Synagris sp.
Termitidae
Bellicositermes spp., winged adults, soldiers
Macrotermes (= Termes) natalensis Haviland, winged adult, soldier
Macrotermes spp, winged adults, soldiers
Pseudacanthotermes (= Acanthotermes) spiniger Sjostedt, winged
adult
Termes gabonensis (author?), winged adult, soldier
Ceratocampid spp.
(2), larvae
Hesperiidae
(skippers)
Caliades (=
Coliades) libeon Druce, larva
Limacodidae (slug
caterpillars)
A limacodid sp.,
larva
Noctuidae
(noctuids)
Nyodes (= Elacodes)
prasinodes Prout, larva
Notodontidae
(prominants)
Anaphe panda (Boisd.), larva
Anaphe sp., larva
Antheua (=
Pheosigna) insignata Gaede, larva
Drapetides (=
Loptoperyx) uniformis Swinhoe, larva
Elaphrodes (=
Onophalera) lacteal Gaede, larva
Rhenea mediata Walker, larva
Nymphalidae
(brush-footed butterflies)
Species identity
not known
Psychidae (bagworm
moths)
Clania moddermanni (author?), larva
Eumeta cervina Druce, larva
Eumeta rougeoti Bourgogne, larva
Saturniidae (giant
silkworm moths)
Athletes gigas Sonthonnax, larva
Athletes semialba Sonthonnax, larva
Bunaea alcinoe Stoll (=
caffraria), larva
Bunaeopsis
aurantiaca Rothschild (= hersilia), larva
Cinabra hyperbius Westwood, larva
Cirina forda Westwood, larva
Gonimbrasia hecate Rougeot (= nictitans
), larva
Gonimbrasia
richelmanni Weymer, larva
Gonimbrasia
zambesina Walker, larva
Goodia kuntzei Dewitz, larva
Gynanisa maia ata Strand, larva
Imbrasia dione Fabr., larva
Imbrasia epimethea Drury, larva
Imbrasia
macrothyris Rothschild (= lubumbashii), larva
Imbrasia rubra Bouvier, larva
Imbrasia spp., larvae
Imbrasia truncata (author?), larva
Lobobunaea saturnus Fabr., larva
Melanocera parva Rothschild, larva
Micragone (=
Cyrtogone) cana Aurivillius, larva
Microgone herilla Westw., larva
Nudaurelia
oyemensis (author?), larva
Pseudanthara
discrepans Butler, larva
Tagoropsis
flavinata Walker (= hanningtoni), larva
Urota sinope Westw., larva
Sphingidae (sphinx
or hawk moths)
Sphingid spp. (2),
larvae
Several spp.,
larvae
At least one
species, identity unkown
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (=
Nomadacris) septemfasciata) Serville, adult
Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis Walker, nymph, adult
Locusta migratoria
migratorioides Reiche & Fairemaire, adult
Miscellaneous Acrididae
Several species
apparently
Blattidae
(cockroaches)
Identity unknown
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Brachytrupes
membranaceus Drury
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (=
Homorocoryphus) nitidula (author?) (= nitidulus ), adult
Ruspolia sp., adult
Possibly the most
comprehensive study anywhere to date on quantitative use of insects as food on
a national scale was that of Gomez et al (1961) who estimated
that insects furnished 10% of the animal proteins produced annually in Zaire
(now Congo [Kinshasa]), compared to 30% for game, 47% for fishing, and only 1%
for fish culture, 10% for grazing animals and 2% for poultry (Congo [Kinshasa]
Table l; see Gomez et al, p. 805, Diagram E). This 10% for Congo (Kinshasa) as
a whole becomes even more impressive when the data are broken down into the
country's 25 districts and 137 territories. In Congo (Kinshasa) Table 2 (drawn
from data of Gomez et al), the districts are listed in descending order on the
basis of food insect use as a percentage of the total animal proteins produced.
For each district, the number of territories is shown in parentheses. For
example, in Kwanga district, which is divided into five territories, insects
furnished 37% of the animal proteins for the district as a whole, and from 22%
to 64% in the different territories. Totally, in the country, insects furnished
more than 20% of the animal proteins produced in four of the districts and in
32 of the territories. It is interesting, and revealing, that in projecting the
country's future protein needs and how they might be met, Gomez et al
considered possible increases in fish culture, grazing animals and poultry, but
assumed that the insect contribution, similarly to game and fishing, would
remain only at then‑current levels. These data are of particular
interest, because it is probable that the quantitative use of insects as
estimated for Congo (Kinshasa) is not atypical of most other countries in
central and southern Africa.
Schebesta (1936: 165)
reported on the foods of the Bambuti stating that the hunt is by no means the
most important source of food. Their staple diet is essentially vegetarian and
is provided almost exclusively by the women, although the men also bring in all
kinds of roots or fruits on their way home from the hunt. The most favored
titbit is honey, which is collected by both men and women. Six different kinds
of bees are known to the Bambuti. All of the Bambuti eat ants, caterpillars and
grubs. The grubs, mostly the size of one's small finger, are very fat and are
found in decayed trees which the Bambuti persistently seek and break into
fragments so as to secure all of the larvae. Schebesta states that: "Unfortunately
the supply of foodstuffs is very uncertain, and changes with the seasons. There
are lean months and full months. The snail season alternates with the ant
period, and this in turn gives place to the time when grubs are plentiful and
caterpillars in season."
Schebesta (1938:
67‑71; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 195‑196) reiterates in greater detail points made in the earlier
paper. Game animals are more scarce in
the Ituri than is generally assumed, and smaller animals, including insects,
are of fundamental importance for the existence of the Bambuti. The Ituri as a
whole is rich in termite hills, and, according to Schebesta, termites vie with
wild honey as the most prized foods of the Bambuti. Caterpillars, grubs from
rotting trees, and larvae of all kinds are collected.
Schebasta (sic)
(1940: 31) refers to the use of caterpillars and termites by the
Bambuti (translation): "In the forest, one must always keep one's eyes
open: this felt that clings to a tree trunk is a colony of caterpillars that
will fill a supply basket in minutes. Grilled, it is a great pleasure, but on
grinding them up with vegetables, a flavorful seasoning can also be made."
Harvesting is the exclusive domain of women. Schebasta says of termites:
Termites are not found everywhere; but all termite nests find fans. At the time of harvest, the camps are abuzz. The women get ready by weaving baskets. A termite mound has its owner, just as a tree with caterpillars or a tree with honey does. In order to indicate ownership, the discoverer of the find tramples on and breaks the underbrush all around it.
Schebasta continues:
The propitious moment is that of the swarming; they frequently visit the termite nest for fear of missing it. By scraping off the thin layer of earth that covers the mound, the tunnels that wind through it are exposed. Some little pieces of wood are stuck in the openings; upon removing them, the moment when the termites are close to reaching the surface is recognized. Flight is at night. The family stays, during the waiting period, next to a small screen. Some leaves are held above the termite nest; at the base, a hole is dug and some resinous wood is piled there. The termite mound begins to swarm with a sort of grating. With wings outstretched, the insects rise, bump into the roof of leaves and fall back to the ground. A fire is lit at the edge of the hole, its light draws them, and they fall into the trap.
Chinn (1945:
123-131, 137-149) discussed the food use and nutritional value of several
beetles, an ant, termites, caterpillars and a grasshopper in the province of
Coquilhatville (the city of Coquilhatville is now Mbandaka) (see below under
the appropriate taxonomic categories).
Adriaens (1951)
studied the food and nutrition among five tribes, the Bayaka, the Bapelende,
the Basuku, the Bambeko and the Bankano in south‑central Congo (Kinshasa)
(Kasai and Lower Congo districts). The studies were intentionally limited to
regions where the economic activity is weak or nil, the soil barren, and the
tribes have little or no income (pp. 228‑230). The difficulties in
conducting the study are described in part as follows (translation):
Apart from the instinctive mistrust of the Blacks towards anyone who wants to penetrate their life, it must be remembered that the majority of adults are illiterate. Besides, the interviewees never understand the importance of the study in which they are wanted to take part. Either they carry on with lamentations of their bad luck or, so as not to incur the disfavor of the interviewer, and in the secret hope of getting it over with as fast as possible, they will give the response they deem the most conformable to his wishes.
Help from "native brothers of the teaching congregations,
agricultural instructors, and the nurses of the rural dispensaries" was
essential in overcoming these obstacles.
Adriaens notes that:
When one comes in contact with the native of central Africa, one clearly gets the feeling that the question of the meal, which he does not require daily nor even periodically, pursues him like an obsession. Having scarcely arrived in Africa, we stopped before a venerable baobab and asked a bystander what the name of this tree was in the local dialect. He answered while shaking his head, 'It is not for eating.'.... Songs, proverbs and legends constantly recall the imperious necessity of alimentation. Among the Bapelende, the children welcome the traveler by singing: 'The rainy season is also that of the caterpillar and the pineapple' [pp. 231-232].... As a member of the clan, the Black knows that everything he owns belongs first to the clan, or at the very least, should be at the disposition of his fellow villagers. Consequently, he will keep in his hut only what he needs for one or two meals. Outside of some small packets of caterpillars or dried mushrooms, sometimes some leftover manioc, there are scarcely any foodstuffs that are not also found in the homes of his neighbors [p. 234].... In Pangala, among the Bankano, we were witness to a collective meal. Four women had each brought a basket of manioc paste of about 2.5 kg, with a small native casserole filled with a puree of legumes or squash almond 'soup,' insects cooked in water or, finally, some puree of legumes enhanced with some caterpillars. According to one's fantasy and preference, each of the participants pulls a bit of paste from one of the four baskets and dunks it into one of the four casseroles before swallowing it (p. 235).
Adriaens (p. 246)
lists comparative prices of native products in the local market in Kenge (Bayaka
and Bapelende) in March, 1948:
Manioc,
soaked and dried in carrots 0.40
fr/kg
Maize 0.50
fr/kg
Peanuts
in pods 2.00
fr/kg
Native
rice, hulled
3.50 fr/kg
Fish,
salted and dried l0.00 fr/kg
Dried
caterpillars "Mikwati" (Saturniidae)
12.00 fr/kg
Adriaens (p. 251)
states:
Without a doubt, the native finds carbohydrates in abundance in his natural environment, while protides and lipids, we agree, are in insufficient quantity. It would take some effort to overcome the deficiencies in his diet through the purchase of palm oil and salt, but his income seems inadequate for regularly obtaining imported meat. Salted and dried fish, unwieldy merchandise which is demanded by the higher‑priority mining and industrial societies, has a hard time making its way to the interior of the country. More often than not, it is bought by the public services, which have to supply rations to the police and soldiers.
Adriaens makes several
remarks relative to insect use in specific tribes. For the Bayaka, the forest
is their domain.
Since agriculture and fishing are the domain of the women, hunting is the main occupation of the men. It is the object of all their worries and the subject of their interminable conversations. When there is no meat or it is scarce, the Blacks fall back on insects: grasshoppers, caterpillars and crickets. In the dry season, at the time of the shrinkage of the waters, the waterfronts of the Kwango yield big aquatic mollusks. These dishes [mollusks], however, are reserved for the women and the 'poor.'
Adriaens states of the
Basuku (pp. 262‑263):
When one travels through the country of the Entre‑Kwenge‑Bakali in June, one sees women and children by the dozen prowling over the recently burned land in search of charred grasshoppers. They have walked a long time to get to the bush of their clan; at dusk, they go back to their village with a fistful of insects, which will be used to flavor the crushed squash almond soup. The harvest of insects, an ancestral activity, is more consistent with the spirit of the Musuku than is big game hunting.
Of the Bankano, a very backward group, Adriaens says (p. 267), "The little currents of
water contain few fish and the caterpillars are rather rare."
Adriaens (1951) notes
that the tribes of the Kango are carnivorous by inclination, vegetarian by
necessity. The introduction of manioc was a "godsend," but according
to Adriaens, starchy foods have lost favor (p. 475). Carrots, along with manioc
leaves, constitute the basic food, and yams are still found. As the manioc
dough is tasteless it is never eaten without the accompaniment of garnishes,
the bissaka and makaia. These garnishes are mainly obtained from
the forest and include such things as mushrooms cooked in water and warmed up
in palm oil, or squash almond soup which may or may not be flavored with
grasshoppers, caterpillars or crickets. Adriaens states (p. 476),
"Consumption of animal protides essentially depends on the risks of
hunting and fishing, because it is the exception rather than the rule, and only
for great events, that the Black will sacrifice a piece of his caprine
livestock."
Game and fish are
seasonal sources of animal proteins. Adriaens describes the role of insects as
follows (a somewhat condensed and edited translation of Adriaen's text, pp.
495-498):
The rainy season also brings caterpillars, larvae and
different insects, of which the natives are very fond. The most sought after
caterpillars are the 'Mikwati.'
'Mikwati' is also the name given by the natives to the botanical association,
Erythrophleum africanum, Ctenium newtonni, Hyparrhenia pachystachya, the
most typical association of wooded savannahs of the Kwango, and also found in
the small valleys. On the other hand, the caterpillars 'Misasi' or
'Mikobeto,' 'Tsiata' or 'Mingolo' show
their preference for alighting on the 'Musesi,' Burckea africana.
Throughout the entire area of the Kwango district,
situated beneath the 5th parallel south, there is some real breeding going on.
A modern Black explained to us that, in his childhood, when he had discovered a
caterpillar nest, he placed it precautiously on the 'Mikwati.' They were crammed in there, he told us, and
growing larger, and at the time of the first brush fires, they fell from the
tree, charred and dried. They were eaten immediately or stockpiled, unless they
were cooked in water with salt before being put out to dry in the sun.
Some weeks before the beginning of the dry season, the
Blacks burn the savannah, the goal being to force out the game, and also,
thanks to the last rains, the bushes may give young sprouts again before the
period of great drought. Whereas all the surrounding brush is left bare by the
fires, the leaves of the 'Mikwati' constitute an abundant reserve of verdure.
It is therefore very easy to harvest caterpillars, to dry and sell them. It is
not unusual to see caterpillars called 'Panzi' displayed at the trading posts.
At a single store in the commercial center of Kwenge in February 1948, there
was a supply of 50 bags, 50 kg apiece; they were sold at 12 francs per kilo. We
have been told that the territory of Kasongo‑Lunda exports significant
quantities of these caterpillars in the direction of [Kinshasa].
The best time to harvest caterpillars is December‑January.
At this time, the Blacks eat from 50 to 100 grams of dried caterpillars per
day, for 4 or 5 persons. When the black housewife uses the dry caterpillars,
she is careful to eliminate the contents of the body. When she has fresh
caterpillars, she 'purges' them at both ends. It seems, then, that the chitin
alone is eaten.
The 'Missati' or 'Mikwati' that we were able to harvest
in the Bapelende villages appeared to be Imbrasia (Saturnidae).
Generally, the caterpillars eaten by the natives belong to diverse families.
Among our harvests, there were Sphingidae, Notodontidae, Noctuidae,
Nymphalidae, and mainly, Saturnidae. It should also be noted that Caeliades
libeon Druce (Hesperidae) is quite common and very well‑liked by the
natives. The Bapelende call it 'Mwanqu' or 'Tunzengededi.'
In the dry season, the natives do not disdain certain
crickets, or 'nzenze' ([Brachytrupes =] Brachytrypes membranaceous),
which are sometimes called 'tubes of fat,' certain grasshoppers, and
'kinzenze.' The 'nzenze' are solitary. At nightfall, they emerge from their
tunnel to eat the fresh grass. Near the entrance of their lodging, they blast a
long strident shout, running the risk of having to hurry into their tunnel at
the slightest alert. With great skill, the black children succeed in capturing
them at the moment they begin their cry. In the dry season, when the grass
becomes scarce, the 'nzenze' move farther away to look for food. At the end of
August 1948, we found tunnels containing debris of fern leaves. The Blacks then
try to blind the insect with the light from torched straw. Most of the time it
is necessary to dig deeply to capture the 'nzenze,' which are curled up at the
bottom of their tunnel.
Among larvae of other insects, the white palm tree worm
(Platygenis barbata, 'mafulu' in Kimbala, 'mafundu' in Kiaka) is a
choice dish. The Basonde and the Basuku from around Feshi exhume 'Makela'
larvae from soil close to streams and marshland. When the harvest is abundant,
or when money is needed, the natives pierce some larvae onto a small stick, dry
and smoke them and sell them in the village. In a native market at Feshi, 1 lot
of 15 Makela was sold in 1948 for 1 fr 50. The 'Mafundi' are big Coleoptera
larvae that live in hot, humid places, compost holes or places where palm tree
leaves and wood debris accumulate. The female natives dig with a hoe to find
the 'Mafundi' which are curled up on top of one another.
It is also important to point out the winged ants
'Tswa,' 'Ngangula' Gnathocira sp.
[a scarabaeid], the 'Nsengi‑tringa,' (Bambala) or 'Bitsiki' (Basuku) Sternotornis
sp. and the different grasshoppers. Brush is burned in order to capture
grasshoppers.
Culinary preparation of the insects is very simple.
Caterpillars, larvae and grasshoppers are normally cooked at the same time as
the peanut seeds and the crushed squash almonds. The 'nzenze' are heated in a
native saucepan and sprinkled with water during cooking.
Thus, each season brings protides of animal origin:
during the dry season, big game, 'nzenze' and grasshoppers; during the rainy
season, caterpillars; and throughout the year, fish, rodents, reptiles, and
diverse larvae. Provision of these protides is essentially dependent on the
nature of the fauna, on abundance of the species, and on the season, too.
Hunting is the men's job, reptiles and rodents are captured by the children,
and the harvest of different insects and fishing fall especially on the women's
shoulders.
Adriaens reports that
geophagy or the custom of eating earth is very common throughout much of the
Kwango. Clay is preferred, with women the main consumers, especially those who
are pregnant. The custom apparently has to do with a concern for providing lime
to the fetus. Among the sources used are fragments of "fly nests,"
called "maconnes" (or animal which builds home with dirt). The genera
used are Synagris sp. and/or Pelopaeus sp.
Adriaens discusses
native cuisine as preparations based on vegetable products (pp. 518‑520)
and those based on products of animal origin (pp. 520‑521). Vegetable
preparations include: a) "Saka‑saka," or puree of manioc leaves
and young buds; b) Purees from leaves of other plants; c) Mushrooms, and; d)
Foods of vegetable origin, like brans and voandzou, which are not indigenous
(often they are introductions of the European) and make their way into the native
dishes only with difficulty. Most foods, whether of vegetable or animal origin,
are cooked for a long time in water. In the case of manioc leaves, chopping
into small pieces and the long cooking should result in the hydrolysis of
cyanogenetic heteroside and release of cyanhydric acid. Insects, small fish,
crabs or shrimp are frequently added to the purees, but they represent only a
small amount in relation to the total mass; "at the maximum, l0
caterpillars or grasshoppers, 50 grams of dried fish in a plate destined for 2
people." Relative to mushrooms,
Adriaens states:
During the rainy season, the natives gather and eat an abundance of mushrooms. One hundred grams of dried mushrooms dipped in tepid water before culinary use, then warmed up with a trace of oil, constitute a meal for 3 people. When the harvest is abundant, the housewives cut them up into pieces and dry them on the roof of the hut. They are, along with caterpillars, pili‑pili and tobacco leaves, the only provisions that are found hanging inside the huts.
Preparations based on
products of animal origin include: a) Game meat, occasionally bred meat, and
larger fish; b) Rats, and; c) Insects, although the latter two are not
considered meat. Caterpillars are cooked in saltwater after having been purged
if they are fresh or winnowed if they are dried. They are eaten with
"soup" of squashed almonds. The nzenze, or crickets, are
handled in one of four ways: a) cooked in water with salt and some pili‑pili;
b) pierced through with a small stick, grilled and eaten immediately, either
alone or with squash soup; c) cleaned of intestines, feet and mandibles, dried
over the fire or in the sun, and munched upon; d) thrown into a hot saucepan
and sprinkled with a little water.
Finally, Adriaens (p.
532) presents data on the nature and frequency of garnishes among 44 Bayaka
families at Munene during the morning meal, September 12, 1948, towards the end
of the dry season:
l) Purees, whose major ingredient is "Dimbula"
(Gnetum africanum Welw.) 18 or 44%
Dimbula + grilled
winged ants l
+ different grasshoppers l
+ mushrooms + grilled winged ants l
2) Purees with a "Mbondi" base (Salacia
pynaerti DeWild)
11 or 25%
Mbondi + squash seed
or peanut seeds + caterpillars 2
+ grilled winged ants 1
3)
"Soups" with a squash seed base 10 or 23%
+
caterpillars
2
+ grilled
winged ants 1
+
grasshoppers
3
+
caterpillars + grilled winged ants 1
+
grasshoppers + caterpillars l
+
grasshoppers + shrimp 1
4) Different foods 5 or 11%
Grilled nzenze (Brachytrupes
membranaceus) l
From the above
tabulation, it is seen that, on the particular morning sampled, insects were
included in 16 of the 44 family meals or 36%.
Relative to animal
proteins, Adriaens (p. 534) says of caterpillars, "The usual amount of
dried caterpillars cooked in water and added to peanut seeds or crushed squash
almonds is 100 grams for 2 adults."
Finally, in stressing
the quantitative importance of garnishes, Adriaens mentions (p. 546) several of
them that included insects that were observed in the mission schools: at Kingunji,
caterpillars + ground peanuts + pili‑pili; at Kimbongo, worms of the palm
tree (Platygenis barbata) + some squash almonds; and at Ndinga, salted
and dried fish cooked in water with caterpillars (Saturniidae) + palm oil + pili‑pili.
Adriaens,
as have others doing similar studies, stressed the difficulty of getting
reliable specific insect identifications, even when expert taxonomic input is
available. He states (p. 495): "We would really like to stress how
laborious the identification of the insects was. The specimens gathered in the
villages are frequently in different stages of development. Moreover, they are
already in a dry state the majority of the time, unless they have been treated
or grilled by the natives. Insects and grasshoppers have almost always had
their feet and wings removed."
Heymans
and Evrard (1970) analyzed several kinds of insects
purchased in a public market in the village of Lubumbashi, and, in addition,
several lots from captures in the vicinity of the village (Congo (Kinshasa)
Table 3; see below, data drawn from Heymans and Evrard, pp.334-337). The lots
collected for analysis were as follows (translation):
#1) Soldier termites of the genera Bellicositermes and
Macrotermes (Family Termitidae); vernacular names, macaro,
(Swahili), mankenene (Tshiluba‑Kasai), bamambay (Tshibemba);
purchased alive 9 January 1970; price 20 K (Makuta) for 206.2 grams. The
soldiers are eaten grilled or smoked and constitute a food much‑liked by
the Baluba (Kasai and Katanga), the Tshokwe and the Lunda.
#2) Winged termites of the genera Bellicositermes and
Macrotermes; vernacular names, inswa (Swahili), nswa (Tshiluba
- Kasai), fibengele (Tshibemba); captured November 1969, bought January
1970, smoked material; price 10 K (Makuta) for 137.4 g. The authors state that
the winged termites "are harvested in abundance from the time of the first
rains and represent a delectable food for the tribes of Katanga and Kasai. The
natives prefer them far and away to the soldier termites which, according to
them, have very few lipids and consequently are of very low nutritive
value."
#3) Caterpillars; vernacular names, mansamba (Tshiluba‑Kasai),
bamukoso (Tshibemba); captured October 1969, bought 9 January 1970;
price 20 K (Makuta) for 176.3 g.
#4) Caterpillars; vernacular names, nukoso (Tshibemba),
binkubala (Swahili); captured 11 January 1970; boiled material + salt.
The authors state that caterpillars are frequently encountered at mealtime and
constitute, along with winged termites, a secondary food that is very well‑liked
by the Katanga and Kasai populations. They often accompany the main dish
obtained from manioc flour or corn mashed in boiling water. They can be
prepared by simple cooking in saltwater, by frying in boiling oil after
previous cooking in non‑saltwater, by grilling on metallic plates heated
over a fire, or by smoking by a wood fire.
#5) Nymphal stage female grasshoppers without wings, Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis (Walker) (Family Acrididae); vernacular names, pandjo (Swahili
term for grasshoppers in general), muluba (Tshiluba‑Kasai), tete
(Tshibemba); living material captured 12 January 1970.
#6) Same data as Lot #5 except these grasshoppers were in
the sixth nymphal stage with wings half‑developed.
#7) Adult male grasshoppers, otherwise same data as Lots
#5 and 6.
Grasshoppers
are prepared by several methods, but mainly by grilling or smoking. They are
used as a sidedish and are well‑liked by the local people. Homoxyrrhepes
punctipennis is collected in qreat numbers in the same season as another
edible species, Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) nitidula, but whereas the
former is collected in tall graminees bordering roads and fields, the latter is
collected mainly in the evenings around public streetliqhts.
According
to Heymans and Evrard, the edible insects utilized in the province of Katanga
are mainly the termites, caterpillars and grasshoppers, and these are all
prized by the local populations. They are rich in proteins and fats (a very
much sought‑after constituent), furnish some calcium and make not a negligible
contribution to nutrition. The authors state that: "The winged termites
are especially rich in lipids. In the eastern province, this fat is kept in a
jar and is currently used by the local people. It constitutes a solution to all
lipidic problems." They also
state: "The various cooking methods, as well as the modes of modern
transportation, permit their acquisition almost year‑round. Their low
price does not pose an obstacle to the majority of the people, who can likewise
find proteins and fats at a cheap price."
Tango
Muyay (1981) (as translated by Dan Turk) identifies by
vernacular name and discusses more than 50 species of insects eaten by the
Yansi, a group of people living in an area of central Zaire extending
approximately 200 km southeastward from the city of Bandundu. That the Yansi recognize the nutritional
value of insects is apparent from an old Yansi saying, "caterpillars and
meat play the same role in the human body" (p. 9). The author emphasizes that unlike large game
animals, insects are easy to catch and readily available throughout the year.
Hence the saying, "As food, caterpillars are regulars in the village but
meat is a stranger" (p. 10). A
table (p. 28) lists many of the species available each month, the main season
being December-January.
Tango
Muyay describes several methods for conserving insects (p. 11). Some species are preserved alive for weeks
or even months. "Mimpoo" caterpillars are placed in the thatch roofs
of houses where they make their "nests" and can be kept alive for up
to 6 months. Beetle larvae are
sometimes kept in pots where they fatten on manioc flour for 3 or 4 weeks. "Nseol" palm grubs can be kept
alive in oil where they grow fatter until ready to be eaten several weeks
later. Three species of caterpillars
("misa", "nkukab", and "mindan") are sometimes
taken from the forest at a young age to be raised to maturity on trees in the
village. Beetle larvae, grasshoppers,
black crickets, termites and many caterpillars are dried in the sun, then over
a fire for long-term preservation.
Drying in this manner appears to be the preferred method for preparing
insects for sale to commercial vendors. Muyay warns that poorly preserved
caterpillars are subject to attack by maggots (p. 12). In preserving insects or
preparing them for direct consumption, the intestines of species with a lot of
excrement are first purged. Species without excrement are highly esteemed (p.
21).
Tango
Muyay emphasizes the increasing importance of insects in commerce, particularly
of certain caterpillar species. One of
the species for sale in the Bandundu market in January 1981,
"mingwel," was purchased from merchants in Kikwit, more than 250 km
to the southeast (pp. 12-13). Some
species now used were relatively recently adopted into Yansi cuisine due to the
influence of their neighbors, the Mbala (p. 13). Among these are "makul" larvae, "kebamwe"
beetles, and a number of grasshoppers (p. 147). Muyay devotes separate chapters of his book to caterpillars,
larvae, adult beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, aquatic insects, and termites,
providing information on each species' use as food and by whom it is collected,
cooked and consumed, and information on food plants, behavior, abundance and
seasonal availability of the insects (see below under the appropriate taxonomic
categories). Muyay also records songs
(a total of 70), stories and sayings which illustrate the importance of each
species within Yansi culture.
Susan
Kirinich, Peace Corps Volunteer in Zaire (now Congo [Kinshasa])
from 1981 to 1983, reported (pers. comm. 1987) that grubs, caterpillars,
termites, grasshoppers, and an unidentified larva are used as food by the Pende
tribe (the people are known as the Bapende) in the Bandundy Region (capital:
Kikwit). Specific observations were mainly in the vicinity of the village of
Kilembe and town of Mukedi. Caterpillars and grubs were available during the
dry season (June‑September), grasshoppers throughout the year. Kirinich
summarized her observations as follows:
Caterpillars were a very important source of protein at a time of the
year when there were few green vegetables available. They were usually fried in
palm oil and were tasty! Termites were eaten only in the winged stage. People
simply stood over a termite mound and caught them as they flew out. They were
eaten both raw (still alive) and cooked in palm oil. Grubs were sold in the
market on sticks, but I never saw how they were gathered. They weren't very
popular in my area. The unidentified larvae were thin and whitish and sold in
the market alive in baskets. Their appearance was not inviting. The
grasshoppers were difficult to catch and they were mainly sought after by
children who had the patience to stalk them.