Chapter 18
CENTRAL AND
EASTERN AFRICA: KENYA, MALAWI, TANZANIA, UGANDA
See Regional Taxonomic Inventory (Chapter 15)
KENYA
Odhiambo (1978) mentions several
kinds of insects used as food in Kenya:
The long‑horned grasshopper,
`nsenene', is an important item of diet in certain parts of Uganda and Kenya,
as recent swarms in many parts of East Africa have shown this year. Lake flies
are collected by many ethnic groups living around Lake Victoria and the great
lakes along the Western branch of the Rift Valley; and these are made into
large balls marketed in rural market‑places, thus providing an important
source of animal protein. Termites on the wing are collected throughout most of
Africa as a sort of snack, but in some places, especially in the semi‑arid
savannah zones, termites do indeed provide an essential element of the diet
among the non‑livestock keeping groups.
Massam (1927)
describes primitive beekeeping by the Elgeyo tribe in the highlands of Kenya
(pp. 122‑123) and their methods of harvesting termites (pp. 123‑126).
The Elgeyo live principally on the grain they grow and on the milk, blood and
meat provided by their livestock, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats. Stock is
practically the only form of wealth recognized or desired. Massam states that
white ants and honey are distinctly luxury foods to the natives and that honey
is "especially esteemed when eaten with pounded 'white ants.'" At lower elevations, termite mounds may be
20 feet high and, at the beginning of the rains, termites are an important part
of the Elgeyo food supply. They are harvested soon after the rains begin by
digging a hole near the base of the mound, then knocking the mound over and
lighting a fire near the hole. The emerging winged termites are stupified by
the smoke and fall into the hole, from which they are scooped and stuffed into
leather bags to suffocate. They are then dried in the sun, the wings are
removed, and the bodies pounded into a paste which is either eaten alone or
with honey. Massam states that it is a very fattening food.
At elevations of about
6,000 feet the termites are smaller and do not build tall mounds. They are
harvested differently. A hole is dug
about 9 inches in diameter and 9 inches deep, about a yard from where the termites
are expected to emerge. It is lined with smooth, neatly overlapping leaves. A
piece of hide, to exclude the sunlight, is supported by twigs from the termite
exit hole to the pit that has been dug. The emerging sexuals, unable at first
to use their wings, crawl toward the light at the end of the hide‑covered
tunnel and fall into the pit, from which they are unable to escape because of
the smooth leaf lining. They are gathered in bags and taken away to dry.
Termites from yet higher elevations are not collected as they are very small
and said to be bitter. Massam notes that these day‑flying termites can
emerge in clouds on sunny days following heavy rain and are a great nuisance by
their numbers. He noted also that they were attracted more to dark‑blue
jerseys than to lighter khaki.
Ominde's (1988)
African Cookery Book offers authentic African recipes representing a
cross-section of East African cuisines -- Kenyan, Tanzanian and Ugandan. It includes recipes for insects eaten as
delicacies, such as fried white ants and fried grasshoppers and locusts.
It is indicative of
the revival of interest in food insects in Africa that the The Research and
Development Forum for Science-Led Development in Africa (RANDFORUM) held an
Africa-wide Exhibition on Indigenous Food Technologies in Nairobi, Kenya,
December 13-17, 1995 (see The Food Insects Newsletter 8(3): 10,
1995). This was part of the larger
Exhibition on Innovative Technologies for Food Production and Processing that
are Commercializable. Under the aegis
of a center for indigenous knowledge, the exhibition included a food fair as
well as displays of living insects in their natural habitats and the processed
end-products ready for consumption. Posters and diagrams provided information
and there was a one-day symposium on the subject.
Diptera
Chaoboridae (phantom midges)
Lake flies (see
Odhiambo 1978 in the Introduction).
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
According to Hollis (1905: 318), among
the Masai, "old men eat the [honey] comb full of grubs." See also Massam (1927) in the Introduction.
Isoptera
Termitidae
Odontotermes sp., winged adults
Bryk (1927; vide Bodenheimer
1951: 151‑152) states that the swarming sexuals of Odontotermes are
caught in almost unbelievable quantities and are an important food in the Mt.
Elgon region where several methods are used for harvesting them. Both winged
and wingless forms are collected and they are eaten either raw or roasted,
although Bryk himself thought the taste was insipid. Although the big harvest
begins with the onset of the rains and swarming of the sexuals, some termites
could be induced to emerge early by beating sticks together to simulate the
sound of rain and by pouring water down the ernergence holes to strengthen the
impression of rain. Bryk notes that only a small proportion of the emerging
termites are captured; many become the prey of birds.
Family uncertain
Karp and Karp (1977) describe the
dietary staples, meal patterns, and the meaning of food in Iteso culture. The
Iteso are an Eastern Nilotic‑speaking people who live in the northern
part of Busia district in the Western Province of Kenya. There are about
250,000 Iteso in Kenya and about 500,000 in Uganda. The authors mention the use
of termites as a snack food (p. 105):
Other food is collected from the
bush by cì¥Á7
ð¿
5¬
bjbjUU
.ã7|7|¨%ÿÿÿÿÿÿl,r:r:r:8ª:<ì¥Á7
ð¿
5¬
bjbjUU
.ã7|7|¨%ÿÿÿÿÿÿl,r:r:r:8ª:<r from 1976 to
1978, saw winged termites picked off of mounds upon emergence during the
daytime and eaten raw (pers. comm. 1987). His observations were made on
the Luo (and perhaps the Luhya also) in Nyanza Province, Siaya District, near
Yala and Nyangweso as well as closer to Maseno and Kisumu. Roth was assured by
his amused host country nationals that they did indeed eat termites or
"white ants" as they called them. (This has the amusing ring of
Western condescension in reverse!). Roth also mentioned being offered, in a
small local restaurant in Malawi, Zambia or Tanzania, a part of a compressed
brown "brick" of termites, about 3 x 3 x 6 inches in size.
Uma Bhalt and David
Newman, Peace Corps volunteers from 1983 to 1985, reported (pers. comm. 1987)
that winged termites were collected in the Nandi District at the beginning
of the wet season, about April‑May, dewinged and eaten raw or
"roasted over a fire for a tasty delight." Their cat also enjoyed termites.
Mark Mankowski (1994), a
Peace Corps volunteer, mentions that the Taita people collect the large flying
alates (called KumbiKumbi in Swahili) and fry them over a fire. In Wundanyi, he
was "delighted" to taste his first roasted termites. "The taste was like greasy-burnt
popcorn but wasn't bad at all."
See also Massam
(1927), Odhiambo (1978) and Ominde (1988) in the Introduction.
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
See Ominde (1988) in
the Introduction.
Tettigoniidae (long‑horned grasshoppers)
"Nsenene"
(see Odhiambo 1978 in the Introduction).
Insects
as Animal Feed
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)
Hemsted (1947) investigated the
use of the red locust (Orthoptera: Acrididae) as a protein source for pigs.
Proximate analysis revealed a crude protein content of 63.5%, or 58.4%, or
18.7% on a dry‑matter, sundried, and wet matter basis, respectively.
Total protein content of the mix fed to pigs was 20%. The growth rate was
"very satisfactory," but the fresh meat and bacon both had a definite
fishy taint. Removal of the locust meal from the diet three weeks prior to
slaughter reduced the taint but did not completely eliminate it.
MALAWI
A wide variety of
insects are still consumed in quantity in Malawi (Dr. Kenneth Ruddle, pers.
comm. 1987).
Shaxson et al (1985) describe
methods of preparation and cooking for a number of species. These are included
under the appropriate taxa below. The section on insects (pp. 21-23) begins by
saying: "It is not generally known in the Western world that insects are a
very good and cheap source of protein.
Taxonomically, these insects are not far removed from shrimps which are
considered a great delicacy in the West."
A study involving
emperor moths and honey bees conducted by Munthali and Mughogho (1992)
in Malawi's Kasungu National Park and in human settlements adjacent to its
eastern boundary demonstrates the advantages of introducing economic incentives
that integrate biological conservation with economic development for the rural
people. It shows that opening national
parks and other wildlife preserves to controlled sustainable use by local
populations can reduce the problems of poaching. Prior to the study, management practices for Kasungu and other
protected areas stressed non-consumptive utilization through ecotourism and law
enforcement. For neighboring rural
people, however, most of them families and their descendents who were resettled
outside the Park when it was established in 1930, outdoor recreation is of low
priority in their hierarchy of needs, and the cost of entry to parks and
reserves is more than they can afford.
Further, as the money from ecotourism goes into the central treasury,
rural people view the management policies as favoring the most affluent rather
than addressing their own socio-economic dependence on wildlife. They manifest their antagonism through
illicit encroachment into protected areas.
In 1990, Malawi's
Department of National Parks and Wildlife allowed 173 families (about 10% of
all households around the Park) to harvest caterpillars in the Park, and
simultaneously initiated modern
bee-keeping in the Park in order to diversify the rural communities' income
base and to win their support for wildlife conservation programs. The caterpillars involved are two species of
emperor moths (Saturniidae), Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maia,
which occur abundantly, the larvae being in season from about mid-October to
December every year. Formerly, 100% of
families practiced beekeeping and utilized saturniid caterpillars and other
products of the forest such as game animals, small mammals, medicine,
mushrooms, firewood and poles. Now,
only 33% practice beekeeping outside the Park, the main reason given by those
who don't being lack of bee forage.
Caterpillars are non-existent outside the Park because of the absence of
forage tree species. According to the
investigators, extensive agriculture (tobacco estates, and maize, beans and
groundnuts grown by smallholder farmers for subsistence and cash) is the main
cause of the rapid dwindling of Malawi's rich biodiversity, even though 22% of
its total area is legally protected as national parks, wildlife and forest
preserves.
It was found during
the study that significantly greater caterpillar yields were obtained from
plots that were burned early every year, followed by no burn and with lowest
yield from late burn which obviously is destructive to the eggs and larvae as
well as the foliage on which the caterpillars feed. Yields also varied significantly with forage tree height, with
highest yield from height class 1-3 meters.
The authors therefore recommend a rotation burning policy that promotes
both good caterpillar yield and vegetation coppicing with more stems in the 1-3
m class. This height class has the
added advantage that it puts the caterpillars within easy reach for
harvesting. Relative to beekeeping
productivity, both honey and wax yields were found to ascend from years 1
through 5, then decline, thus requiring modest investments in new hives and
other equipment in year 1 and after the fifth year.
Munthali and Mughogho
used gross margin analysis (defined as outputminus the variable associated
costs expressed in money terms) as a measure of each enterprise's economic
efficiency. Caterpillars and beekeeping
had more than twice to several times the gross margin values of maize, beans
and ground nuts. These wildlife-based
enterprises not only produced earnings that exceed those from agriculture, but
they do not directly compete for labor with the existing agricultural
enterprises as most families affirmed that they would have time to practice
beekeeping and/or to harvest caterpillars even during crop season. Of added importance, of the smallholder
families in the study area, 50% run out of food stocks by November, which is,
coincidentally, when caterpillars and honey are in season.
Munthali and Mughogho
conclude that the utilization of honey and caterpillars in the Park by the
rural people is an important turning point in the history of wildlife
management in Malawi. While taking full
cognizance of the Park's primary purpose of preserving the country's
representative biotic communities, "The DNPW needs to take full advantage
of the rural people's willingness to be allied with wildlife management
programmes and consolidate it through the validation of sustainable land use
practices."
Diptera
Chaoboridae (phantom midges)
Chaoborus edulis Edwards, adult
Known as Nkhungu,
these occur only on the Lake (Nyassa) and swarm once a month at the time of the
new moon (Shaxson et al 1985).
They form huge clouds over the lake which are visible from many miles
away. Lake fly are extremely
nutritious, being high in protein and calcium and containing six times as much
iron as ox liver. Ingredients and preparation: 1 cake dried lake fly; 1 tomato
chopped; 1 onion chopped; salt; 1 cup ground nuts, fried and pounded; a little
oil. Break the cake of lake fly into
pieces and boil in a little salted water until soft. Add the tomato, onion, oil and groundnuts. Cook gently for a few
minutes and serve with nsima or rice.
Ephemeroptera
Caenidae (mayflies)
Caenis kungu (author?)
Bodenheimer (1951: 194)
cites Daguin (in l900) that D. and C. Livingstone observed the collection and
consumption of immense swarms of gnats known as kungus along the
northern shores of Lake Nyassa. They were formed into cakes about one inch
thick, and the taste was compared to caviar or salted locusts. According to Fladung
(1924: 8) the paste known as kungu is composed of the mayfly, Caenis
kungu (Ephemeroptera) and mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae), but see
Chaoboridae above and under Uganda.
Hemiptera
Family uncertain
Nezara robusta (author?), adult
Sphaerocoris sp., adult
The shield bug, Sphaerocoris,
known as Nsensenya, is prepared by washing them, and frying with a
little salt until brown (Shaxson et al). Serve as a relish. The
large green shield bug, Nezara robusta, known as Nkunguni,
is prepared as for Dziwala (see below).
Homoptera
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Loba sp., adult
Monomotapa sp., adult
Orapa sp., adult
Platypleura sp., adult
Pyona sp., adult
Known collectively as Nyenje,
these are large cicadas and most conspicuous during the early rainy
season. Remove the wings and fry with a
little oil and salt. Serve as a relish
(Shaxson et al).
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
Wild bee larvae, known
as Ana a Njuchi, are removed from the comb and dried. Fry with a little salt, dry again if desired
and serve as a relish or appetizer (Shaxson et al). See Munthali and Mughogho (1992) in the
Introduction relative to beekeeping and honey production in national parks.
Formicidae (ants)
Carebara vidua Sm., winged adult?
This ant is known as Mafulufute. Fry with a little salt, but no fat. Serve
hot or cold as a relish (Shaxson et al).
Isoptera
Termitidae
Macrotermes spp., winged adults
Shaxson et al (1985) give
two methods of preparation for these large termites, known as Inswa or Mbulika
(or flying ants). Method 1: Heat
a pan and fry the ants dry. Remove
them, dry them in sun, winnow to remove wings, and check carefully to remove
any stones. Heat a pan with or without a little fat, add the flying ants and a
little salt, and fry until done. Serve with nsima or as an appetizer. Method 2: Wash the flying ants in water and
allow to drain for a short while. Add salt and fry them without oil, stirring
constantly until wings are burned.
Remove from heat and keep them in a warm place for about 5 minutes,
until completely dry. They may be fried
again in oil if desired. Var.: If oil
is used, add a little chopped onion and chopped tomatoes to the pan. Groundnut flour may also be added.
Lepidoptera
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Gonimbrasia belina Westwood, larva
Gynanisa maia (Klug), larva
See Munthali and
Mughogho (1992) in the Introduction relative to saturniid caterpillar harvest
in national parks.
Miscellaneous Lepidoptera
Quin (1959: 114) cites Barker
(in 1951) that several species of caterpillars are used as food in Malawi. They
are named after their food trees, e.g., mphalabungu, kawici, mabwabwa,
katondo, etc.
Shaxson et al (1985) state
that "green caterpillars" are used, and that these caterpillars
(known as Mofa, Mphalabungu, Kawichi, Mbwabwa, Katondo) appear about
March and feed on grass (but see Barker above). They are common in the Central Region. Remove the stomach and intestines, then wash the
caterpillars. Boil for 5 minutes in
water, then dry in sun. Heat a frying
pan, fry the caterpillars with a little oil and salt. Serve as a relish.
Variation: add 1 chopped tomato, 1 chopped onion and a little groundnut
flour to the pan. The authors note that
after sun drying the caterpillars may be stored for up to three months.
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Acanthacris ruficornis (Fabr.), adult
Cyrtacanthacris aeriginosa (author?), adult
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata (Serville), adult
A. ruficornis and C.
aeriginosa are known as Dziwala, C. septemfasciata as Dzombe
(Shaxson et al 1985). Remove wings and horned part of legs. Boil in
water for 5 minutes, then dry in sun.
Winnow off any remaining wings, and fry in a pan with a little
salt. May also be fried with a little
fat. Serve as a relish. If frying with
fat, a little chopped onion, chopped tomato and/or groundnut flour may be added
to the pan.
Gryllidae (crickets)
Brachytrupes membranaceus (author?), nymph, adult
After digging crickets
(Nkhululu) from their burrows, remove wings (if any), the stomach and
intestines (very important) and wash them.
Heat a frying pan and fry the crickets with a little salt, and a little
fat if desired. If fat is used, chopped
onions may also be added. Allow
crickets to dry and serve as a relish (Shaxson et al 1985).
Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) vicinus Walker, adult
These large green bush
crickets are known as Bwamnoni (Shaxson et al). Remove wings and horned part of legs. Boil in water for 5 minutes, then dry in
sun. Winnow off any remaining wings. Fry with a little salt and a little fat if
desired. Serve as a relish.
TANZANIA
Harris (1940; vide Bodenheimer
1951: 139‑141) emphasized that many insects are eaten regularly as part
of the diet by various tribes in Tanzania. His discussion is summarized below
under the appropriate orders and families.
Coleoptera
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Sipalinus aloysii (= Sipalus aloysii‑sabaudiae) (author?), larva
Beetle grubs in
general are not popular (Harris 1940). The large coconut beetle grubs
are ignored. Only the larvae of the weevil, Sipalinus (= Sipalus) aloysii (=
aloysii‑sabaudiae), which are common in abandoned ceara‑rubber
plantations, are regularly eaten. The ceara trees are split open at the proper
season and yield a good harvest of grubs. The grubs are boiled or roasted.
Diptera
Chaoboridae (phantom midges)
Chaoborus edulis Edwards, adult
Lakes Victoria and
Nyassa produce untold numbers of the lakefly, Chaoborus edulis. They are
collected by rushing into the dense clouds of midges, swinging hemispherical
baskets attached to the end of long handles. The midges are squashed into solid
masses, molded into cakes and dried in the sun. According to Harris, the
lakefly is an important food in the limited areas where it occurs (see Chapter
17, Table 2 for data on the nutritive
value of C. edulis).
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis mellifera adansonii (= adansoni) Latr., larva
The honey of Apis
adansoni is in great demand, and, according to Harris, most natives
also have a taste for the larvae which are usually eaten raw, ingested with
comb and honey. On occasion, the bee larvae are shaken out and added with honey
to the stiff meal porridge which forms the basis of the native meal. Irvine
(1957) states that, in Tanzania, "bee grubs" are commonly eaten
in the process of chewing beeswax to remove the honey.
Isoptera
Termitidae
Macrotermes spp., winged adults, queens
Pseudacanthotermes (= Acanthotermes) spp., winged adults
Termes spp., winged adults, queens
The flying sexuals and
queens of a variety of termites, Acanthotermes spp., Macrotermes spp.,
and Termes spp. are used. The larger species are eaten casually,
according to Harris, only the Acanthotermes being widely sought
after. They are eaten raw, often alive, or they are dried for storing. In the
western parts of the country, dried termites are offered for sale in the local
markets during the season. Queen termites, especially those of Macrotermes,
and to a lesser extent, Termes, are sought. They are roasted and
"highly appreciated." The
termite harvest method involves building a supporting framework of branches
over the low mounds of Acanthotermes and covering this with banana
leaves, bask cloth or blankets. A single opening is left and the emerging
sexuals, attracted by the light, head for the opening. Few manage to fly
straight out and escape.
Family uncertain
Hegh (1922; vide Bodenheimer
1951: 151) described the method of collecting termites in "Tanganyika‑Moero"
(this may be a district in Zaire, actually). Openings are driven into the
center of the mound; a stick with a palm oil‑soaked cotton pad at its end
is introduced and upon its withdrawal, the termites adhering to the pad are
collected. They are placed in rotang baskets which are then vigorously shaken
to cause the wings to detach.
Lepidoptera
Notodontidae (prominants)
Anaphe panda (Boisd.) (= infracta), larva
The gregarious
caterpillars of Anaphe panda (= infracta) are eaten in several parts of
Tanzania. They build communal nests of silk on the branches of Bridelia
micrantha, each nest containing many larvae. They are cooked fresh, or are
dried and qround to powder for storage (Harris 1940).
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Bunaea alcinoe Stoll (= caffraria), larva
Larvae of the giant
silkworm moth, Bunaea alcinoe (= caffraria), 10 cm in length when fully
grown, are collected in large numbers by the Matengos near Lake Nyassa. They
are prepared by roasting (Harris 1940).
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata Serville, nymh,
adult Locusta m. migratoria Linn.,
nymph, adult
Schistocerca gregaria Forskal, nymph, adult
Both the adults and
young hoppers of locusts such as
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris septemfasciata, Locusta migratoria
and Schistocerca gregaria are widely eaten in Tanzania (Harris
1940). The wings and hind legs of the adults are removed before roasting.
Fried in butter, the flavor is reminiscent of shrimps. Some are sun‑dried
for storage and eaten as a flavoring with porridge.
Gryllidae (crickets)
Brachytrupes (= Brachytrypes) membranaceus Drury, adult
The giant cricket, Brachytrupes
(= Brachytrypes) membranaceus, which is a common pest of garden roots, is
dug up, roasted, and eaten as a relish (Harris 1940).
Tettigoniidae (long‑horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) vicinus Walker, adult
Near Lake Victoria,
the green grasshopper, Ruspolia (= Homorocoryphus) vicinus is eaten in
large numbers. They are eaten fresh or dried (Harris 1940).
According to Mors (1958),
grasshoppers known as nsenene appear in Buhaya‑Land in the
district of Bukoba twice a year, April and November. They are in such vast
swarms that they obscure the light of the moon. They alight in the morning,
however, and are easily caught in the cold, wet grass. In addition, fires may
be lit in the fields so the smoke will keep them from flying. Young and old,
especially the women and children, go out to collect them. According to Mors,
all land is communal for catching nsenene where they fall, and owners
cannot exclude trespassers who come for that purpose.
Says Mors: "The nsenene
are the greatest delicacy of the Bahaya." They are known by many different names depending on color (Mors
lists these), and are part of many "sayings"; for example, Kafwe
nsenene igwire is a malediction against an enemy denoting the wish that he
may die without having time to fetch nsenene.
The nsenene are
prepared at home by the women and girls by first removing the wings and legs
and then roasting them or cooking them in salt water. According to Mors, the
women are allowed to drink the water in which the nsenene have been
cooked, but they are forbidden to eat them even though there may be a large
supply. This is to show deference to the masters of the household. Women and
girls refrain from eating the meat of goats for the same reason. There are many
other rules governing the use of nsenene. For example, children must
give to their father the hoppers caught in the morning and to their paternal
uncle those caught in the evening; those caught in the afternoon they can keep
for themselves. The nsenene are esteemed as gifts. Mors mentions that in
addition to the nsenene (which he says do not eat grass and leaves),
large grasshoppers (enzige) are eaten in some regions of the country.
UGANDA
Owen (1973: 132‑136)
provided most of the available information on insects as food in Uganda, and
also provided an excellent discussion of nutrition alternatives in Africa.
Relative to insects specifically, Owen stated (p. 132):
Most people in tropical Africa who
are no longer dependent on wild foods collect insects for food. The habit is
especially well‑developed among the cultivators of the forest region
whose normal diet is deficient in protein, but it is uncertain whether insects
are eaten because of their nutritional qualities. In some areas there is much
ritual associated with the seasonal appearance of certain desirable species of
insect. The eating of insects may in some ways be compared with the European
tendency to eat marine molluscs and crustaceans. The aversion to insects as
human food among Europeans is probably based on nothing more than custom and
prejudice; insects are indeed good to eat and some taste as good as the best
lobster or crab.
Owen continued:
The species utilized....are those
that are locally or seasonally abundant. Examples are locusts and other Orthoptera
which at times can be extremely abundant, the winged reproductives of termites
which occur in immense numbers with the onset of the rains, and the gregarious
larvae of moths, particularly members of the Saturniidae. As with some other
foods there are often ceremonies and beliefs as well as discriminatory taboos
built into the collecting and eating of species that are locally important.
Thus almost everywhere certain segments of the community are forbidden to eat
insect delicacies: sometimes the women are not allowed to eat them, sometimes
the children, sometimes sick people, pregnant women, and so on. It appears that
some insects are held in high esteem and are therefore reserved by custom for
the more important and senior members of the community, and if someone is found
eating insects that are by custom taboo there may be unpleasant consequences
for that person.
Owen's information on
specific insect groups is summarized below by insect order.
Dr. G.S. Ibingira
(pers. comm. 1987) stated that winged termites and cone‑headed
grasshoppers (R. nitidula) "are great delicacies among many tribes
in Uganda and other Eastern and Central African countries."
Coleoptera
The larvae of many
species of the larger beetles are sought and eaten, but according to Owen, they
are not as important as termites and grasshoppers in the diet because few
species are found in large numbers.
Diptera
Chaoboridae phantom midges)
Chaoborus edulis Edwards, adult
Lake fly (Chaoborus)
cakes are eaten and are possibly an important source of protein in Uganda (Owen
1973).
Gullan (1995)
discussed the species composition of Chaoborus cakes or kungu, citing several references and personal
communication from Dr. Peter Cranston who had examined several cakes of kungu
in the Natural History Museum in London. The following, quoted from Armitage
et al (1995: 372), was written by Cranston:
We know from other entomologically
and anthropologically skilled observers that the cake is also termed 'kungu'
and is prepared from aquatic insects emerging en masse from other
Ugandan lakes. Examination of an
example of the cake preserved in the Natural History Museum showed that a major
component is actually a species of fly belonging to the family Chaoboridae, Chaoborus
(Sayomyia) edulis Edwards (Cranston, unpubl.). This species undergoes lunar periodic emergence from Lake
Victoria, and moves in large numbers towards lakeside lights. As the specific name implies, F.W. Edwards
knew of the edibility of the species when he described it. It is uncertain whether the allergic
disorders of white residents of Entebbe were due to the chaoborids or the small
tanytarsine midges also present.
The following
paragraph from Armitage et al (pp. 430-431) was also largely written by
Cranston:
Swarming dipterans are also used as
food by humans living around some large African lakes. Most records are anecdotal and refer to
chaoborids as being the main source (Beadle, 1974). The flies are attracted to lights and fall to the ground. They are collected, boiled and made into
small cakes (Kungu cake) which are said to taste similar to caviar or
salted locusts. Large numbers of
chironomids emerge at the same time as chaoborids (MacDonald, 1956) and they
also constitute a proportion of the midges collected for food. . . .
According to Gullan, regarding the likely presence of the mayfly Caenis
kungu and mosquitoes in kungu (as claimed in 1924 by Fladung),
Cranston said that it is possible the adults of a number of aquatic insects may
be incorporated into kungu, but
he strongly suspects that the reference to mosquitoes is a misidentification of
the chaoborids.
Bergeron et al (1988)
determined the nutrient composition of a sample of flour consisting of adults
of three genera of aquatic insects, Chironomidae [sic] [Chironomus?],
Chaoborus and Povilla, harvested and prepared by local residents
from the islands and shores of Lake Victoria, Uganda. After harvest, the
insects are sun-dried and then ground into the flour for subsequent use. Insect
cake is prepared by mixing the flour with water and allowing the mixture to sun
dry. Unfortunately, the investigators were unable to specify either the species
or proportions of the different insects comprising the flour sample which they
analyzed.
Proximate analysis of the
flour revealed the following values: moisture 9.8%, crude protein 67.0%, fat
4.2%, crude fiber 6.7%, ash 11.6%. A 100 g portion of the flour would provide
well over 100% of the FAO-recommended daily intake of protein. Caloric value of
a 100 g portion of the flour was determined to be 1.9 MJ. Amino acid analysis
revealed cysteine to be the limiting amino acid. The estimated in vitro
digestibility of the protein was 91% with a discriminant computed protein
efficiency ratio (DC-PER) of 2.1.
Vitamin content was found to be (mg/100 g): niacin 26.0, thiamin 1.6,
riboflavin 8.0. Thus a 100 g portion of the flour would provide more than 100%
of the FAO recommended daily intake of the vitamins, based on 65 kg moderately
active adult male. Vitamins A and C
were not detected. Of minerals, the flour was an excellent source of phosphorus
(1.1 g/100 g) and iron (1.3 g/100 g), contained substantial amounts of calcium
(267 mg/100 g), magnesium (169 mg/100 g), zinc (13.1 mg/100 g) and had a
potassium (997 mg/100g) to sodium (390 mg/100 g) ratio of 2.6:1.0. The authors
note that "this flour is a major dietary constituent" and they
conclude from their study that aquatic insects "which can be harvested in
large quantities, dried, and made into a flour have the potential to furnish
substantial amounts of high quality protein, vitamins, and minerals to the
diets of native Africans and residents of other third world areas."
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
Owen states that, in
addition to honey, bee larvae are collected as food although it is not clear
whether his statement refers specifically to Uganda or to Africa in general.
Isoptera
Termitidae
The larger species of
termites [probable species are Macrotermes bellicosus, M. falciger, and M.
subhyalinus, all of which occur in Uganda and have been reported as food
elsewhere] "are much favoured as food" in many areas of East Africa. Owen
states that the termite mounds are individually owned and anyone caught
collecting from a mound that he does not own is likely to be regarded as a
thief. The winged sexuals emerge in
enormous numbers with the first heavy rainfall marking the onset of the wet
season. Various types of traps are used. In eastern Uganda, the winged termites
are induced to emerge by beating the nearby ground with sticks, simulating
heavy rainfall. The termites are eaten raw or lightly fried in their own fat.
Owen states that there is a considerable trade in termites in some areas and
that sun‑dried termites are found at the right season in the local
markets in many East African towns and villages. They are sometimes transported
long distances to markets.
The Baganda who live
around the northern shore of Lake Victoria in Uganda use termites and fried
grasshoppers as snacks between the main meals, one or more of which consists
each day of steamed cooking bananas or plantains (known locally as matoke or
matooke) accompanied by side dishes which are mainly sauces incorporating
tomatoes, beans, eggs, fish or meat when available.
Family uncertain
Osmaston (1951)
observed "drumming" to induce termite emergence near Namwendwa in
Bulmogi county of Busoga. The drumming was "low, rhythmical and all‑pervading,"
and it seemed to come from the ground. The "drum," half buried in the
ground of a termite mound, was a horizontal piece of wood about 20 inches long
by 4 inches in diameter, while the "drumsticks" were about 12 inches
long by 1 1/2 inches in diameter. Either rolled‑up banana leaves or clay
pipes were inserted into the exit holes. The termites crawled out through these
tubes and fell into containers.
Osmaston describes the
flavor of raw termites as follows:
To my surprise I found them
excellent, with a delicate flavour somewhere between fried whitebait and
hazelnuts. But to catch this flavour it is no good nibbling at a single insect,
a fair mouthful must be chewed [as he had seen the drummers do]. Since then I
have never looked back and regard them as one of Uganda's cheapest luxuries. I
have also tried them boiled and fried; but these methods seemed to kill the
initial delicate flavour and I think it is true to say that most African
habitues of the termite prefer them raw. In many Bantu‑speaking parts of
the country boiled and dried termites are on sale in the markets at some
seasons of the year, but this method of preparation in my opinion makes them
rather dull and tasteless, though I have no doubt they still provide a valuable
protein element in the diet.
According to Osmaston,
drumming is usually timed to synchronize with the end of a heavy shower, and it
appears to be a rather frequently used means of inducing swarming in Buganda
and Bunyoro. The other main method involves building a dome‑shaped
framework of sticks or elephant grass, which is then covered with banana leaves
or a blanket, leaving a single exit so that the emerging termites fall into a
pit or container. If it is after dark a light is used to help lure them through
the opening.
Osmaston mentions that
birds, especially swallows, martins and bee‑eaters, are conspicuous
predators of the termites. A small hawk and a kite were also seen taking their
share. He notes that his dog was also very fond of them. Finally, he mentions
seeing soldier termites for sale in a market near Pakwach, and that most
Nilotics seemed to enjoy eating the live queens. Osmaston tried fried queens,
but was not much impressed with their flavor. He concludes, saying, "I
foresee the day in the development of Uganda when the establishment and care of
vast termitaria may be an important commitment of some government department."
Also see Ibingira
(1987) in Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Moth larvae are
collected and roasted, and may often be bought in the markets. Owen gives no clue, however, to their
identity.
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)
Cyrtacanthacris (= Nomadacris) septemfasciata Serville, adult
Locusta m. migratoria Linn., adult
Schistocerca gregaria Forskal, adult
The three locust
species that are especially injurious to crops in tropical Africa (presumably
including Uganda) are esteemed as food by many people. The species are the
migratory locust, Locusta migratoria; the red locust, Cyrtacanthacris
septemfasciata; and the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Owen,
p. 91). They are usually fried but may be pounded up and added to sauces. They
resemble shrimps in flavor.
Gryllidae (crickets)
Brachytrupes (= Brachytrypes) membranaceus Drury, adult
Brachytrupes
membranaceus, a large, fat cricket which is destructive to root crops, is regarded
as a particular delicacy and is collected by digging them up from their burrows
in the ground (Owen 1973).
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa (=Curtilla) africana Palisot, adult
Fladung (1924: 6)
reported that the mole cricket, Gryllotalpa africana, is kept for both
its chirping and as food.
Tettigoniidae (long‑horned grasshoppers)
Ruspolia ( = Homorocoryphus) nitidula (Scopoli) ( = nitidulus)
The long‑horned
bush cricket, Ruspolia nitidula (Scopoli) occurs in immense swarms with
the onset of the rains in East Africa. In Uganda the species is known as nsenene
and the Abdim's stork as the nsenene‑bird because it tends to
follow the swarms. Flights of the birds herald arrival of the nsenene and
in some areas a special watch is kept for them. The introduction of electric street lights into towns in East
Africa has revolutionized nsenene collecting as the insects are
nocturnal and attracted in vast numbers to the lights. Owen states that in
Kampala, Uganda, "the streets may be completely blocked to traffic by
people who come in from rural areas to collect nsenene."
References Cited (An * denotes reference not seen)
Armitage, P.D.; Cranston, P.S.; Pinder, L.C.V. (eds.). 1995. The Chironomidae:
Biology and Ecology of Non-biting Midges. London: Chapman and Hall, pp.
371-372, 430-431. (Uganda: Chaoboridae)
Beadle, L.C. 1974. The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa -- An Introduction
to Tropical Limnology. London: Longman.
(Uganda: Chaoboridae)
Bergeron, D.; Bushway, R.J.; Roberts, F.L. et al. 1988. The nutrient
composition of an insect flour sample from Lake Victoria, Uganda. J. Food
Composit. Anal. 1: 371-377.
(Uganda: Chaoboridae)
Bodenheimer, F.S. 1951. Insects as Human Food. The Hague: W. Junk, 352 pp. (All countries)
Bryk, F. 1927. Termitenfang am Fusse des Mount Elgon. Entomol.
Rundschau 44: 1‑3.* (Kenya:
Termitidae)
Fladung, E.B. 1924. Insects as food. Maryland Acad. Sci. Bull. 4(4): 5‑8. (Malawi: Caenidae; Uganda: Gryllotalpidae)
Gullan, Penny. 1995. [Letters.] Food
Insects Newslet. 8(2): 6. (Uganda:
Chaoboridae)
Harris, W.V. 1940. Some notes on
insects as food. Tanganyika Notes and Records 9, Dar es Salaam.* (Tanzania: Introduction and most orders and
families)
Hegh, E. 1922. Les Termites. Bruxelles, pp. 669‑678. (Tanzania: Isoptera, Family uncertain)
Hemsted, W.R.T. 1947. Locusts as a protein supplement for pigs. East Afr.
Agric. J. 1947, pp. 225‑226.
(Kenya: Acrididae)
Hollis, A.C. 1905. The Masai: Their Language & Folklore. Oxford:
Clarendon Press. p. 318. (Kenya:
Apidae)
Irvine, F.R. 1957. Indigenous African methods of beekeeping.
Bee World 38: 113‑128.
(Tanzania: Apidae)
Karp, I.; Karp, P. 1977. Social aspects of Iteso cookery. In: The
Anthropologists' Cookbook (J. Kuper, Ed.), New York: Universe Books. p. 105.
(Kenya: Isoptera, Family uncertain)
MacDonald, W.W. 1956. Observations on the biology of chaoborids and
chironomids in Lake Victoria and on the feeding habits of the 'elephant-snout
fish' (Mornyrus kannume Forsk.). J. Anim. Ecol. 25: 36-53. (Uganda: Chaoboridae)
Mankowski, M. 1994. [Letters.] Food Insects Newslet. 7(2): 7. (Kenya: Isoptera: Family uncertain)
Massam, J.A. 1927. The Cliff Dwellers of Kenya. London: Seeley, Service
& Co. LTD, pp. 123‑126, 134. (reprinted 1968) (Kenya: Introduction)
Mors, P.O. 1958. Grasshoppers as food in Buhaya. Anthropol. Quart.
31: 56‑58. (Tanzania:
Tettigoniidae)
Munthali, S.M.; Mughogho, D.E.C. 1992. Economic incentives
for conservation: Bee-keeping and Saturniidae caterpillar utilization by rural
communities. Biodivers. Conserv. 1: 143-154. (Malawi: Introduction)
Odhiambo, T.R. 1978. The use and non‑use of insects. Nairobi: Centre
Insect Physiol Ecol., 17 pp. (Kenya:
Introduction)
Omende, Mary. 1988. African Cookery Book. Nairobi: Heinemann Kenya, 152
pp.* (Kenya: Introduction)
Osmaston, H.A. 1951. The termite and its uses for food. Uganda J. (Kampala)
15: 80‑83. (Uganda: Isoptera,
Family uncertain)
Owen, D.F. 1973. Man's Environmental Predicament. An introduction to
human ecology in tropical Africa. London: Oxford Univ. Press, pp. 91, 132‑136. (Uganda: Introduction and most orders and
families)
Quin, P.J. 1959. Foods and Feeding Habits of the Pedi. Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand Univ. Press, pp. 114‑115.
(Malawi: Miscellaneous Lepidoptera)
Shaxson,
Annabel; Dickson, P.; Walker, J. 1985. The Malawi Cookbook. Zomba, Malawi: Blantyre Printing
and Publishing Co., Ltd., pp. 21-23.
(Malawi: Introduction and most orders and families)
Chapter
18 of The Human Use of Insects as a Food Resource: A Bibliographic Account in
Progress, by Gene R. DeFoliart, posted on website, July, 2002