Chapter 19

CENTRAL AND EASTERN AFRICA: ANGOLA, CONGO, OTHERS

See Regional Taxonomic Inventory (Chapter 15)

ANGOLA

Oliveira et al (1976) conducted analyses of the nutritional value of four species as cooked according to traditional methods in central Angola (Angola Table l; see Oliveira et al, Table VII). The termite, Macrotermes subhyalinus, has a wide distribution and is common in the north and east of Angola. The reproductive form or alate, known as juinguna, is consumed after the wings have been removed and the body fried in palm oil. The saturniid larva, Imbrasia ertli, feeds on the leaves of Acacia and two other host species in tropical rain and open forest of the Ethiopian faunal region. The mature larva is approximately 8 cm in length and known as engu (plural, ovungu). After removing the viscera, the larvae are either cooked in water, roasted or sundried. Salt is added for further flavoring. Usta terpsichore, another saturniid larva, is also widely distributed in the Ethiopian region and very common in Angola. It feeds on several species of plants and is locally known as olumbalala (plural, olombalala). The fully grown larva is about 8 cm long and is prepared for eating in a fashion similar to that for I. ertli. The weevil, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, is an important pest of palm, especially the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, in Africa and its presence in the trunk of a tree is detectable because of the noise made by the larva when feeding. The apod larva measures about 3 cm in length and has a reddish‑brown or black head and whitish‑colored body. It is known locally as maghogho. After first incising the body, the larva is fried whole in oil.

The high fat content of Macrotermes subhyalinus and Rhynchophorus phoenicis is reflected in their high energy values, 613 and 561 kcal/l00 g, respectively (Angola Table 1). Usta terpsichore is a rich source of iron, copper, zinc, thiamine and riboflavin, l00 g of cooked insect providing more than 100% of the daily requirement of each of these minerals and vitamins. It is also relatively high in calcium compared to many insects, and in phosphorus. Macrotermes subhyalinus is high in magnesium and copper, and R. phoenicis in zinc, thiamine and riboflavin, l00 g of insect in each case providing more than the daily requirement.

Barbara Rogers (pers. comm. 1987), the daughter of missionaries in Angola between 1948 and 1960, observed the use of several kinds of insects as food. While the observations were primarily on the Kimbundu speaking people in the Malanje area, they are valid also for the Ovimbundu area of southern Angola. Termites, or "flying ants," emerged with the first spring rains in September and were fried for use. Cricket nymphs were roasted. Bee larvae (and pupae?) were eaten with the honey comb in which they were found. Large beetle grubs, about l inch long, white and accordian‑like with an orange head, were dug out of the ground, dried, and mixed with sauces. Large adult brownish and copperish qrasshoppers, about 3 inches long, were roasted.

Coleoptera

Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)

Chrysobothris fatalis Harold, larva

Psiloptera wellmani Kerremans, larva

Steraspis amplipennis Fabr., larva

Sternocera feldspathica White, larva

Wellman (1908) states that the woodboring larvae are common items of food among the indigenous population, and he lists six species including the four buprestids listed above.

Cerambycidae (long‑horned beetles)

Zographus ferox Har.

Wellman (1908) reports Zographus ferox, but does not make clear whether it is the larvae or adult beetles that are consumed, although probably the former.

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr., larva

See Oliveira et al. in the Introduction.

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Camenta sp., larva

Wellman reports that the larvae of a species of Camenta are eaten.

Miscellaneous Coleoptera

Burr (1939: 210) mentions being offered a "huge black coleopterous larva, bigger than my finger."

Hymenoptera

Apidae (honey bees)

Bee brood (see Rogers 1987 in the Introduction).

Isoptera

Termitidae

Macrotermes subhyalinus Rambur, winged adult

Alate adults of Macrotermes subhyalinus are eaten (see Oliveira et al in the Introduction).

Miscellaneous Isoptera

Livingstone (1857: 464) reported that in the spring at Kolobeng, white ants swarm in the evenings by the thousands:

While swarming they appear like snow‑flakes floating about in the air, and dogs, cats, hawks and almost every bird, may be seen busily devouring them. The natives, too, profit by the occasion, and actively collect them for food, they being about half an inch long, as thick as a crowquill, and very fat. When roasted they are said to be good, and somewhat resemble grains of boiled rice. An idea may be formed of this dish by what once occurred on the banks of the Zouga. The Bayeiye chief Palani visiting us while eating, I gave him a piece of bread and preserved apricots; and as he seemed to relish it much, I asked him if he had any food equal to that in his country. `Ah,' said he, `did you ever taste white ants?' As I never had, he replied `Well, if you had, you never could have desired to eat anythinq better.'

Lepidoptera

Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)

Imbrasia ertli Rebel, larva

Usta terpsichore M. & W., larva

See Oliveira et al. in the Introduction.

Miscellaneous Lepidoptera

Burr (1939: 210) mentions that his porters regularly prepared stews of two kinds of large caterpillars, "one pale green, fat and juicy, which certainly had a nutritious air," while the other was black, ringed with yellow.

Orthoptera

Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)

Schistocerca peregrinatoria Linn.

Regarding the locust, Schistocerca peregrinatoria, Wellman (1908) relates that:

I once witnessed the advance of the early wingless form through the Chisanje country to the east of Benguella. Hardly a green thing was left behind them. In the adult winged state they sometimes come in such numbers as to darken the sun. . . . At night these locusts (native name 'Olohuma') settle on trees and shrubs, sometimes in such numbers as to almost cover them. . . . The insects are eaten by lizards, small mammals and birds, especially a sort of plover, Glareola nordmanni, which apparently follows and feeds entirely on locusts. The native Africans, too, are very fond of them when roasted. They also kill them by dropping them into boiling water and then dry and store them away for future use.

Gryllidae (crickets)

Brachytrupes (= Brachytrypes) membranaceus

Wellman (1908) reports that the giant cricket, B. membranaceus, is dug out of its burrows in mealie fields by the native women, often in great numbers.

0ne can sometimes see small basketfuls, wings and legs removed, ready for the pot ‑ for they are esteemed a great delicacy. Native children often go about digging for these crickets, and not seldom get their fingers badly nipped in return, as the insect's mandibles are sharp and powerful and can draw blood. When a nest of driver ants (Annoma arcens Westwood) goes on a raid it is a sight to see the crickets (comparatively elephantine in size) driven from their holes, stridulating indignantly and struggling in vain to rid themselves from their foes.

Miscellaneous Insects

Livingstone (1858: 389) observed in the Quango River area [Bashinje tribe?] that the people "spend much energy in digging large white larvae [beetle grubs ?] out of the damp soil adjacent to their streams. and use them as a relish to their vegetable diet."

CAMEROON

Merle (1958), noting that earlier accounts of the use of insects as food in Cameroon "are generally rather old," set out to inquire about the caterpillar harvest of 1957. He states, "It is in Black Africa, from all evidence, that the consumption, and I would also say the trade, of caterpillars has maintained a rather important standing." He first discusses the importance of caterpillars of the genus Anaphe, which are eaten not only in Cameroon but throughout equatorial Africa. The large communal silken sac, containing a dozen individual cocoons, "is the focus of important commercial traffic and is sold in all the village and city markets." The pupae are not considered edible, at least in the Ebolowa region, thus the caterpillars are harvested immediately after formation of the cocoon before pupation takes place. They are first grilled to remove the bristles, which otherwise would cause an intense and disagreeable itching. The caterpillars are then washed, put into the pot with or without water, and tomatoes, salt, pepper, and oil are added. This dish is well-liked.

Merle states (translation):

It is important to note that the populations of Ebolowa are not deprived of meat and that several herds exist in the area. It is not, then, for 'need' of proteins that these people feed themselves caterpillars. I must point out that the Anaphes are not the only edible species in the region that interest us, and that certain caterpillars ‑‑ which derive their vernacular name from the tree on which they are captured ‑‑ are more sought after, more well‑liked. It is interesting to know that the caterpillars, after having been grilled ‑‑ and sold in the market like that ‑‑ can be kept for several months. This is of interest from a nutritional point of view, because caterpillars are not found year‑round, usually just from August to November.

According to Merle, in the Sanaga‑Maritime (Bassa), there are mainly three species of caterpillars that are sought, and, aside from the Anaphe, "it is especially the Saturnidae which are the object of African appetites." Many of the species are found grouped together, sometimes in the hundreds, and their presence when not readily seen can be detected by the sound of their chewing or by the sound of the frass hitting the ground. Merle, apparently thinking that this assertion may sound unbelievable, says, "The reader who doubts the veracity of these words could experience it himself in Douala, for example, by standing in October under certain mango trees invaded by the enormous Saturnidae caterpillars."

Merle concludes by suggesting that, "the future development of Africa might do well not to brutally reject its whole past, even in the mundane domain of food.... Could not changing the simple 'gathering' of caterpillars into a small local industry be envisaged?" As one possible example, he mentions a saturniid caterpillar that feeds on the "frake" tree (Terminalia superba), sometimes stripping it of all of its leaves in a single day. The frake tree grows from Guinea to Angola, and the caterpillar has perhaps five generations annually. Merle says: "We submit this idea to interested agencies. The raising of snails, of oysters, is practiced successfully under other skies. Why not the raising of caterpillars in the Tropics."

According to Tessmann (1913/14, I: 108, II: 189‑190), the Pangwe of southern Cameroon use 21 species of caterpillars as food. Tessmann enumerates a number of taboos, including Oryctes (= Angosoma) centaurus for the uninitiated. Forbidden for pregnant women are larvae of Rhynchophorus phoenicis "if found in a cocoon," and termites. Not forbidden are free‑living larvae of Rhynchophorus. Dragonfly nymphs (ese'i,‑bak) are eaten; "the child will, however, 'urinate' frequently as the dragonfly larvae do." Apis mellifica var. adansoni is not kept domestically (I, p. 108) but honey is collected from wild bees most commonly found in tree trunks, and is consumed raw. In the preface for Volume I, Tessmann states that the actual reasons why certain animals, insects, or plants cannot be eaten are partly based on religious beliefs, partly based on a fear of the animal's appearance or its way of life, or simply based on some past experience with consumption of them.

The Ba‑Binga pygmies of the High‑Nyong valley live mainly on meat, but when this is lacking they collect everything edible including caterpillars and other insects and their larvae (Bertaut 1943: 89; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 197). The Badjoues delight in the worms of the raphia palms (Koch 1944; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 139). De Lisle (1944; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 139) states that the natives in various regions of Cameroon eat many insects of all orders. De Lisle (pp. 57, 64) reported seeing baskets full of Popillia beetles, especially P. femoralis, for sale in the markets of the Dschang region. He also mentions that the eating of termites and locusts is well known.

Coleoptera

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr., larva

See Tessmann (1913/14) and Koch (1944) in the Introduction. Bodenheimer (l951: 139) cites a personal observation by T. Monod that two kinds of palmworms are distinguished. One, found in living palms, is located when the trees are felled; the other is found in the decaying galleries of felled palms and these larvae are the more highly prized. [One of these two kinds may be Oryctes, a scarabaeid.]

Grimaldi and Bikia (1985) state (p. 136, translation): The larvae of certain coleoptera harvested from the oil palm and from the palm of genus Raphia are eaten in Cameroon. These larvae, called "Fos" in Ewondo, are white (oil palm) or yellow (raphia palm). They are sometimes reared. Before any preparation, the larvae are washed in a lot of water and pierced in the abdomen with a sharp piece of bamboo between each washing to let a white, fatty liquid escape. In all regions they are prepared either by stewing, frying in oil with salt and pepper, adding to squash seed paste, or putting on brochettes grilled over coals. The authors provide the following recipe for larves de palmier or coconut larvae. They add, 'This favorite dish is only offered to good friends and is served with manioc sticks.'

Ingredients: Larvae coming from oil palms or raphia palms, salt, pepper, onion, coconut.

Preparation: Larvae washed and cut in half are mixed with all the condiments cited. The coconuts are chosen at half-hard stage, so that the inside, completely globular, can be taken out of the husk without being broken. The most pointed end of the nut is cut in a way that forms a cap. The nuts are emptied of their milk, then refilled with the larvae and condiments and closed by attaching the caps firmly. The nuts are stood straight up by some banana leaves in a pot containing water. The amount of water should be such that, during the course of cooking, it cannot penetrate the nuts. The cooking is rather long. After cooking, the nuts are cut into slices.

Bamoun preparation: Among the Bamoun, the larvae are strung up and left to dry hanging under the trellis that is found above the foyer. After they are well-smoked, they can be incorporated, after being washed, into the squash seed paste.

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Oryctes (= Angosoma) centaurus Fabr., larva

Popillia femoralis Klug, adult

Larvae of Oryctes centaurus are eaten (see Tessmann in Introduction) as are the adults of Popillia femoralis (see De Lisle 1944 in Introduction).

Hymenoptera

Apidae (honey bees)

See Tessmann (1913/14) in Introduction.

Isoptera

Miscellaneous Isoptera

Bodenheimer (1951: 159) cites Jaques‑Relix (in 1948) that the Bamilekes work termites into a sauce, na, which seasons the basic yam meal. Also see Tessmann 1913/14) and De Lisle (1944) in Introduction.

According to Grimaldi and Bikia (1985: 137-138, 174, 184, 200), termites can be eaten raw; grilled by adding only salt; incorporated into pastes and sauces; crushed, then cooked in a bundle in the shape of manioc sticks (East). They are very tasty incorporated into squash seed paste. Their preparation in West Cameroon where they are known as "Ka ngo" in Nufi-fefe and as "Ngo'o" in Bangangte is as follows (p. 138): Wings are removed by passage to the hot frying pan and fanning. Then the termites are wrapped up in a softened banana leaf and put in a pot to cook. After cooking, they are drained and mixed in heated palm oil, salt and pepper. They are served accompanied by one of the tubers.

Lepidoptera

Notodontidae (prominents)

Anaphe spp., larvae

See Merle (1958) in Introduction.

Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)

Caterpillars of many species are eaten (see Merle in Introduction).

Miscellaneous Lepidoptera

The Pangwe use 21 species of caterpillars (Tessmann 1913/14). See also Bertaut (1943).

Grimaldi and Bikia (1985: 138, 169, 175, 178-179, 184, 193, 200)) note that caterpillars are harvested mainly during the rainy season, and, most often, their name is that of the tree from which they have been gathered. They are divided into three categories: smooth caterpillars, hairy caterpillars, and slightly rough caterpillars. Vernacular names of caterpillars eaten most often in central and southern Cameroon are Minlon, Ngombo, Minsie, Mimbin, Bisol, Bizom, Eyalkakam, Obegbe, Etondo, Andondo, Minyos, and Efok in Ewondo. The authors state (p. 138) that all of these caterpillars are eaten in the same way, but the preparation before cooking is different according to the varieties. The smooth caterpillars require no work before preparation. The hairy caterpillars are put into a basket with coals and fanned in order to burn off the hairs. Most often, the rough caterpillars are simply invaginated by driving a well-sharpened piece of bamboo through the anus or the head. The external part of the skin thus becomes the internal part. They are, in general, incorporated into sauces or into squash seed paste.

Odonata

Dragonfly nymphs are eaten (see Tessmann 1913/14 in Introduction).

Orthoptera

Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)

Locusts are eaten (see De Lisle in Introduction).

Migratory grasshoppers and locusts known as "Ngongok" or "Ngam ntee" in Nufi-fefe and as "Ngam ntam" in Bangangte are cooked without water in a saucepan after having their wings and legs pulled off (Grimaldi and Bikia 1985: 137). Upon contact with the heat, they secrete oil in which they will be fried. Some salt and pepper are added. They are eaten without accompaniment or served with a platter of tubers.

Gryllidae (crickets)

In the Coastal way of preparation, crickets are charcoal-grilled and eaten as is. They are known as "Besele badiboumba" in Douala (Grimaldi and Bikia 1985: 137). In the Western way of preparation, legs and wings are removed, the crickets are cooked over coals or in a dry frying pan by adding salt. Once cooked, they are eaten as is. They are known as "Sisi" in Nufi-fefe and as "Ntsetan" in Bangangte.

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Much of the available information has been furnished by returned Peace Corps Volunteers. Elizabeth W. McCoy, Peace Corps volunteer from 1983 to 1985, reported consumption of termites and caterpillars (pers. comm. 1987). Rain forest tribes in the southern CAR eat caterpillars, both dried and fresh, cooked in sauce with leaves. Their use was observed in Bangui, Ubaki, and other rain forest cities and towns. McCoy stated that she saw them only during the rainy season although they may have been a year‑round delicacy. The "Mandja" tribe and many others consumed termites with the wings removed and lightly sauteed in a bit of water or in a sauce. Specific observations were made at Bangui, Bossembele, and other towns. McCoy states:

It's difficult to cite specific tribes in the CAR because the population is a motley group. There are areas where certain tribes have settled but other groups live in these areas as well, generally because of work transfers. I got the impression caterpillars were a real delicacy and that termites were a cheap treat, i.e., people liked eating termites because they were seasonal but also because they were cheap. It could be they weren't that cheap in the market ‑‑ I don't know. . . . Muslims, because of the food restrictions of Islam, wouldn't eat insects, but most other people did.

Katharine Jane Dyer, Peace Corps volunteer from 1984 to 1986, also reported {pers. comm. 1987) that most of the Central African tribes eat both caterpillars and termites. Towns where one or both were for sale included Bangui, Nola, Sibut, Mobaye, Bambari, Mbaiki, Berberati, Carnot, Bossembele, and Kagabandore. Caterpillars, which were collected by searching for them in their natural habitat, were commonly seen from the beginning to the middle of the rainy season. Prepared with Koko leaves in a sauce, they were used as a main dish; fried black, they were used as a side dish or appetizer. Kerosene lamps were put out when the winged termites emerged; they were drowned in buckets of water when attracted to the lamps. After removal of the wings they were eaten raw or fried like popcorn as an appetizer, or mixed with squash seed paste as a main dish.

Coleoptera

Elateridae (click beetles)

Tetralobus flabellicornis Linn., larva

In Central Africa, the larva of the giant click beetle, Tetralobus flabellicornis, "is esteemed a delicacy." (Berensberg 1907).

Isoptera

Junker (1891: 340) described the termite harvest as follows:

I have already remarked that with the commencement of the rainy season, the natives also begin to gather certain species of termites. Weeks before the 'harvest', the people mark off those nests which seem most suitable for their purpose. Here they dig a round hole a foot wide and several feet deep, whereby the place is at the same time set apart for a certain person and left untouched by the others. Like everybody else, my servants had done this, and also prepared a quantity of long bundles of dry grass, which here take the place of the resinous torches elsewhere in use.

Rainy days and excessive moisture are unfavourable conditions for the appearance of the termites, which may be safely expected on fine evenings following sunny days. Then the people may everywhere be seen with their flaming brands squatting down each at the hole which he had dug at the foot of the hill reserved for him. The female termites creeping out go straight to the fire without actually rising on the wing; others soar into the air, but also partly wheel round towards the light, while the rest fly away. Those approaching the hole are all swept in with tufts of foliage. Many lose their wings, and most of them are in a dazed state, so that they are afterwards easily transferred to baskets, sacks, or pots. The termites for the most part take wing during several successive days, or else at intervals in bad weather.

Daguin (l900: 18; vide Bodenheimer 1951: 160) credits Sir S.W. Baker with the statement from Central Africa that termites, fried in butter, are considered a very delicate meal. Baker himself found that they have "rather a good taste, with a light flavour of burned plums." [Earlier records should be checked to be certain they refer to territory within the CAR, not to "Central Africa" in general.]

Noyes (1937: 228 f.), as related by Bodenheimer (1951: 157‑159):

. . . compares the welcome of the rainy season with its termite flights in Central Africa to the hailing of the advent of the oyster season by the British gourmets. The Baganda like the winged sexuals, alive. When these leave the nests, a contingency which has long been foreseen, they often rise only to collide with a sheet of bark‑cloth spread over the summit of the termite hill by the natives. The impact breaks off the winqs at the sutures and they fall to the ground within the curtain in white, struggling masses; their wings are swept aside by human hands, when they are sifted out from the cloth. Men and women scoop them up in handfuls, eating a few occasionally, savouring the flavour; naked children, shrieking with delight, vie with all the birds of the neighbourhood, wild or tame, in chasing and collecting stragglers, munching as they run, stuffing themselves to repletion, heedless of the acute diarrhoea which will presently disorganize their interiors.

See also Dyar (1987) and McCoy (1987).

Lepidoptera

See McCoy (1987) and Dyer (1987) in the Introduction.

Orthoptera

Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)

Junker (1891): 278) wrote:

Wando and Fero kept us on such short commons that my people were glad to join the natives of an evening, when they went with lighted torches locust gathering. This was done [near Ndoruma in Central Africa] not through any absolute want of food, but because of their preference both for locusts and termites, which, however, do not by any means form a common article of their diet. In Central Africa, I only once saw a large harvest [of locusts], though in Tunis it was of frequent occurrence. I soon overcame my repugnance to such fare, which, in fact, I found very palatable. The insects were very fat, and when roasted without wings and legs, looked like little fish or shrimps.

CONGO (Brazzaville)

Nkouka (1987) states that many varieties of insects, including representatives from the majority of orders, are appreciated as food in the Congo. Lepidopterous caterpillars are the most frequently and abundantly consumed, especially during the period November through January. The author notes that 20 years ago, the estimated consumption of caterpillars collected around Brazzaville was estimated at 30 g/person/day, which is considerable.

Nkouka presents data on nutritive value of various edible insects, beef and fish (Diagramma mediterraneus) gathered from FAO and ORANA (Congo BrazzavilleTable 1; see Nkouka's Table 1) and states that the nutritive value of the insects is at least as good as that of the more usual animal foods. In general the insects are higher in protein, fat, niacin, riboflavin and energy. Nkouka concludes that it is "an error to uphold the taboos which can make insects in the eyes of some Africans appear as vestiges of a time long past. Many of the multiple nutritional deficiencies observed in the hospitals come from suburban areas and are found among people who have lost contact with country foods. This disturbance in the food balance is aggravated by a deficient income which prevents the acquisition of suitable replacement products. In the rural environment the traditional food resources provide a supplement which fills the deficit left by meat or fish or other resources in countries where animal production is very insufficient. The promotion of edible insects merits, therefore, more detailed study.

Bissmeyer and Dury (1992), Peace Corp volunteers and fish extension agents, express an interest in using insects as a supplementary food source for the subtropical fish, Tilapia, inasmuch as termites and ants seem to be a favorite of these otherwise vegetarian fish, and both insects are plentiful. Bissmeyer and Dury also mention eating yellow palm grubs and many other insects which they "might otherwise have ignored." They ask, "Why are insects so taboo in America?; they make quite tasty snacks."

Bani (1993) mentions the difficulty in breaking preconceived ideas about insects as food, and states, "In my country for example, many people are fond of many food insects but a lot of them do not show it because they think that edible insects are 'uncivilized' food. I think it might be the same in many other African countries."

Bani (1995) states that "There are many traditional meals composed of products from hunting and gathering. Meals can be different among people in the Congo, according to the environment (forest or savannah) in which they are presently living and the culture from which they are derived historically." Forest covers 60% of the country, savannah about 24%, and there are more than 60 ethnic groups. Insects hold an honorable place among gathered products, because weight for weight, some species command a higher price on the market than imported meat. The author notes that knowledge is still limited concerning the number of edible insect species used in the Congo, but many kinds are eaten and they are eaten essentially throughout the country. He advocates promoting and popularizing to greater extent the use of edible insects, not only because they are an important proteinaceous food but because they can have economic effects locally. Species discussed by Bani are included below under the appropriate taxonomic categories.

Coleoptera

Larval and pupal Coleoptera are much sought after and are eaten raw or roasted (Nkouka (1987).

Bostrichidae (branch and twig borers)

Bostrichid larvae are among those coleopterans less frequently eaten (Bani 1995).

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Cerambycid larvae are among the less frequently consumed coleopterous larvae (Bani 1995).

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr., larva

One larva which is prized everywhere is the palm worm Rhynchophorus phoenicis which lives in oil and coconut palms. Its rarity in the markets and its taste make it a high‑priced food; in the "Total" market in Brazzaville each worm costs 40‑50 F (Nkouka 1987). Bani (1995) calls R. phoenicis larvae "the most appreciated edible insect throughout the Congo."

Passalidae (bess beetles)

Certain genera of Passalidae and Tenebrionidae, xylophagic insects [?], are not [delaisse] by the peasants. It seems that the only precondition for collection is abundance (Nkouka 1987).

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Augosoma (= Angosoma) centaurus Fabr., larva

Oryctes boas Fabr., larva

Oryctes owariensis Beauv., larva

Larvae of Oryctes owariensis, O. boas and Angosoma centaurus are preferred (Nkouka 1987). The three species listed above are eaten fried (Bani 1995).

Hemiptera

Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)

Belostomus (= Belostoma?) spp.

Those eaten are the Belostoma and related aquatic genera which are collected in relation to fishing (Nkouka 1987). According to Bani, many species of Bellostomus are fried and eaten. They are caught by Congolese while fishing and, particularly, when emptying fishing ponds.

Homoptera

Cicadidae (cicadas)