Chapter
22
Overview
In this region, the use of edible
insects has been reported in
In Samia
ricini, the eri silkworm, the region provides one of the best
examples of how environmental benefits can be reaped from the use of
"multiple product" edible insects.
The species feeds on the castor plant which grows well on poor soils,
thus helping to prevent soil erosion; castor bean oil is sold for industrial
and medicinal uses; excess leaves are fed to the caterpillars which produce
silk used in commerce and a pupa that is a high-protein food (India) or animal
feedstuff (Nepal); and the caterpillar frass and other rearing residue can be
used for pond fish production.
Regional Taxonomic Inventory
Taxa and stages consumed Countries
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae (long‑horned beetles)
Batocera rubus (Linn.), adult?
Coelosterma scabrata (author?)
Coelosterma sp.
Neocerambyx paris (author?)
Xysterocera globosa (author?)
Xysterocera sp.
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Rhynchophorus chinensis (author?)
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv., larva
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)
Eretes stictus Linn. (= sticticus), larva, adult
Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Hydrophilus olivaceus Fabr., adult
Passalidae (bess beetles)
Passalus interruptus (author?), larva
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Oryctes rhinoceros (Linn.), larva
Xylotrupes gideon Linn., larva
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
Lethocerus indicus Lep. & Serv., adult
Gerridae (water striders)
Gerris sp.
Gerris spinole (author?)
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Bagrada picta Fabr.
Coridius chinensis
Coridius nepalensis (Westwood), adult
Cyclopelta subhimalayensis Strickland, adult
Erthesina fullo Thunb., adult
Homoptera
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Cicada sp.
Cicada verides (author?)
Hymenoptera
Anthophoridae (carpenter bees)
Xylocopa sp., adult?
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis dorsata Fabr., larva, pupa
Apis laboriosa (author?) larva
Bee
brood
Formicidae (ants)
Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.), larva, adult
Red
ant
Isoptera
Winged
termites
Termite
queens
Odontotermitidae
Odontotermes feae Linn.
Termitidae
Termes sp.
Lepidoptera
Arctiidae (tiger moths)
Diacrisia obliguae (author?)
Bombycidae (silkworm moths)
Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa
Bombyx sp.
Lasiocampidae (tent caterpillars, lappet moths)
Malacosoma sp.
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Antheraea assamensis (Westwood), pupa
Antheraea paphia (Linn.), pupa
Antheraea roylei
Samia cynthia (Drury)
Samia ricini (Boisduval), pupa
Mantodea
Family uncertain
Hierodula coarctata (author?)
Hierodula westwoodi Kirby
Odonata
Aeschnidae (darners)
Acisoma parnorpaides (author?)
Aeschna spp., nymphs
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short‑horned grasshoppers)
Acrida gigantea (author?)
Acridium melanocorne Linn.
Acridium peregrinum (author?)
Locusta mahrattarum Hope
Mecapoda elongata (author?) India
Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal) India
Locusts/qrasshoppers India,
Nepal, Pakistan
Gryllidae (crickets)
Acheta bimaculatus De Geer India
Brachytrupes achetinus (author?)
India
Gryllodes melanocephalus (author?) India
Liogryllus bimaculatus (author?)
India
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa africana Beauv. India
Tettigoniidae (long‑horned grasshoppers, katydids)
Holochlora albida (author?) India
Holochlora indica Kirby India
Lima cordid (author?) India
Family uncertain
Thylotropides ditymus (author?) India
Trichoptera
Caddicefly
larvae India
Other silkworm species also have
great multiple-product potential in the region.
The pupae of Bombyx mori
are used not only as human food in India, but have been experimentally
evaluated there and in Sri Lanka as a high-protein replacement for various
levels of fishmeal in poultry and egg production. Chopra et al (1970) analyzed 33 samples of
feed ingredients from various parts of India and found that de-oiled silkworm
pupae meal from Mysore (the only insect product tested) was the highest in
crude protein (76.0% with free amino acids removed) and highest in the amino
acids lysine, histidine and arginine. In
chick feeding trials, Ichhponani and Malik (1971) found that half of the
fishmeal and half of the groundnut cake in the ration can be replaced by
de-oiled silkworm pupae and corn-steep liquor (a byproduct of the corn starch
industry), with no reduction in final weight or feed/gain ratios. The authors point out that the annual
production of silkworm pupae meal was 20,000 tons and of corn-steep fluid 8,000
tons, making them significant sources of protein. Saikia et al (1971) tested the effect on egg
production of several agricultural and
industrial waste products in Assam as substitutes for yellow maize and fishmeal
which are costly. The experimental layer
mash containing silkworm pupae cost the least, gave the lowest feed-to-egg
conversion ratio, and the lowest cost per dozen eggs produced. The pupae-fed pullets also suffered the
lowest mortality (nil), produced the largest eggs, thickest shells, light
yellow yolks and were graded AA. In
feeding trials in Sri Lanka, Wijayasinghe and Rajaguru (1977) also found that
silkworm pupae could successfully replace the local fishmeal in poultry
rations, both for growth and egg production.
Pupae of the saturniid, Antheraea
assamensis, have also been tested with promising results in
chick-feeding trials as a substitute for the irregular and costly supply of
fishmeal in Assam.
INDIA
In a recent study, Gope and Prasad (1983) obtained proximate
analyses on eight of the nearly 20 species of insects found in a preliminary
survey to be commonly used as food among the various tribes in the State of
Manipur in northeastern India (India Table 1; authors' Table 1). The experimental insects were starved for 24
hr to allow the gut contents to clear before analyses were conducted. The indentity of specimens was determined by
specialists at the British Museum (Natural History). Samples analyzed included representatives of
the following species: Hydrophilus olivaceous Fabr.
(Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae); Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae); Belostoma indicus Lep. & Serve. (Hemiptera: Belostomatidae); Odontotermes feae Linn. (Isoptera: Odontotermitidae); and from among the
Orthoptera, Acridium melanocorne
Linn. (Acrididae), Gryllotalpa africana
Beauv. (Gryllotalpidae), Hierodula westwoodi
Kirby (Mantidae), and Holochlora indica
Kirby (Tettigoniidae). The authors
found, on a fresh weight basis, crude protein values ranging from 4.4% in B. indicus to 28.4% in A. melanocorne, and calorific values
(kcal/100g) ranging from 63.2 in B. indicus
to 486.0 in O. feae. They note that although B. indicus was the lowest in protein and
calorie value of the insects analyzed, it is a popular dish in Manipur.
Gope and Prasad concluded that
insects represent the cheapest source of animal protein in Manipur and their
consumption should be encouraged because many of the people cannot afford fish
or animal flesh.
Roy and Rao (1957) conducted
a dietary investigation of the Muria in the Bastar district in southeastern
Madhya Pradesh in central India. Muria
is a term under which all of the primitive tribes of the district are grouped. Agriculture is the main source of income,
which varies between Rs. 70 to Rs. 150
per year. One-third of families are
landless and work mainly as laborers, many on road-building. The main dietary staples are rice (primarily)
and millets. Pulses and leafy vegetables
are grown, with surplusses sold in the local markets. Adult goats, pigs and poultry average 2.6,
1.2 and 3.5 head per family. Family
units average 6.6 members. Some foods,
including fruits, vegetables and tubers are collected from the forest. The authors summarized the diet as monotonous
and nutritionally very unsatisfactory, lacking in animal protein, calories,
calcium and certain vitamins. They
emphasize that the Muria do not get enough animal meat: "They cannot afford to kill their
domestic animals very often. These are
generally sacrificed on festive occasions.
Not a single family was found to consume meat regularly." Eggs are not eaten, but are hatched to get
the chickens.
Roy and Rao state that:
The
people are very fond of some kinds of insect larva known as `chind kira.' The date-palm is known as
"chind." These yellowish white
larvae, each weighing about 50.0 gm., are collected from young date-palms. Larvae of bees are also eaten. Eggs of ants are collected from the leafy
nests and considered as a delicacy.
`Gurmuri kira' which is collected from its nests by holding a lighted
torch, is also eaten by many of the tribal people.
As to preparation, the authors say:
Insect
larvae (chind kira or gurmari kira) are mostly fried. 'Chind kira' is said to be very tasty. The tribal people put the fatty larvae (chind
kira) simply on a hot pan the larvae are fried in their own fat....There are interesting
ways of eating ants. Ants captured from
the nests in the trees are covered and tied up in cups made of leaves and
roasted while covered up in the leaf cups.
After the ants have been roasted, these are squeezed into a paste and
baked with salt and chillies to make a 'chutney.' Sometimes these are killed and dried in the
sun. Sun dried ants are powdered and
stored for future use. The powder, which
is very sour to taste is used for the preparation of vegetable and meat curry.
Maxwell-Lefroy (1971) asks why insects
are not more widely eaten by the "civilized" portion of mankind, then
states:
It is
pure caprice and we know that many insects are excellent and nourishing food. .
. the subject rests in darkness precisely because the people who practice this
habit are not those of whom much is known or whom civilisation reaches: we fear
that the spread of civilisation will lead to the total abolition of these
interesting practices before we know about them, to the detriment of a later
generation which will have to rediscover by experiment which are and which are
not, good to eat . . . Mankind eats many curious things, including oysters,
shrimps, whelks and cockles, dried sea slugs (Holothurians), and birds' nests;
the most civilised nation is addicted to eating snails, even uncooked; and yet
there is an absurd prejudice against insects, not universal, but certainly
covering the more civilised portions of mankind. We may doubt if the deterioration in natural
instincts that civilisation brings is not revealed in the races that eat so nauseous,
deadly and unappetising a thing as an oyster and refuse to consider a nice
clean white termite queen or a dish of locusts.
Insects
discussed by Maxwell-Lefroy are included under the appropriate taxa below.
As part of a government-sponsored
research project (not yet completed), Bhattacharjee
(1990) surveyed a number of areas
covering three tribes, Bodo, Demasa and Sonowal Kachuri in different parts of
Assam and was surprised at the number of insects which they eat on a mass scale
and which they use for medicinal purposes.
As the result of a brief (two-week)
field survey, Meyer-Rochow and Changkija
(1997) reported 42 species of
insects used as food by the Ao-Nagas in northeastern India. The scientific
names (some provided by the Zoological Survey of India and not verified by the
authors), English common names and local vernacular names are listed below
under the appropriate taxonomic
categories. The investigators also
observed two species of edible spiders for sale in a local market in Kohima.
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)
Batocera rubra (author?)
Coelosterma scabrata (author?)
Coelosterma sp.
Neocerambyx paris (author?)
Xysterocera globosa (author?)
Xysterocera sp.
The English name of Xysterocera sp. is pink wood borer, the
others are simply wood borers.
Vernacular names used by the Ao-Naga for the species listed above are,
in order, arulangtang, tsükha, khuro tsükha,
tsükha, arulangtang tasula and angami
tsükha (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija
1997). Plant associations are
Alnus nepalensis and Calicarpa spp. for C. scabrata; Morus spp. for C. sp.; Albizia
sp. for N. paris; and Butea minor for X. sp.
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Balaninus album (author?)
Rhynchophorus signaticollis (author?)
B. album, the banana weevil, is known by the Ao-Naga as merong, R.
signaticollis, the palm weevil, as morong
(Meyer-Rochow and Changkija 1997). The "chind kira" mentioned by Roy and
Rao may refer to a palm weevil
larva (see Introduction).
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)
Eretes stictus Linn. (= E. sticticus), larva, adult
Both larvae and adults of the
dytiscid, Eretes sticticus, are
consumed (Essig 1942, p.
539). It breeds in brackish ponds. Larvae are gathered as they leave the water
to pupate in the soil, the newly emerged adults as they attempt to return to
water.
Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Hydrophilus olivaceous Fabr., adult
See Gope and Prasad (1983) in the
introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis).
Passalidae (bess beetles)
Passalus interruptus (author?), larva
The larvae of the passalid, Passalus interruptus, a pest of potatoes,
are consumed in Bengal (Brygoo 1946, cited by Bodenheimer
1951, p. 209).
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Oryctes rhinoceros (Linn.), larva
Xylotrupes gideon Linn.
The large fat grubs of Oryctes are eaten, and probably many other
similar insects (Maxwell-Lefroy 1971). See also under Gope and Prasad (1983) in the
Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis of O. rhinoceros). X. gideon,
the Hercules beetle, is called lessepo
by the Ao-Naga (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija
1997).
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
Lethocerus (= Belostoma) indicus Lep. & Serv., adult
See Gope and Prasad (1983) in the
Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis). The Ao-Naga vernacular name of the giant
water bug is atsü leplo (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija).
Gerridae (water striders)
Gerris sp.
Gerris spinole (author?)
In the Ao-Naga vernacular, water
striders are called tsümeroki (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija).
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Bagrada picta Fabr.
Coridius (= Aspongopus) chinensis Dallas, adult
Coridius (= Aspongopus) nepalensis (Westwood), adult
Cyclopelta subhimalayensis Strickland, adult
Erthesina fullo Thunb., adult
Distant (1902, p. 283) reported
that Aspongopus nepalensis
Westwood, which is found under stones in the dry river beds of Assam, is much
sought after for use as food, pounded up and mixed with rice.
In addition to Aspongopus nepalensis which was reported
earlier by Distant to be edible, Strickland
(1932) adds A. chinensis
Dallas and a new species, Cyclopelta
subhimalayensis Strickland to the list of edible pentatomids in
India. Tribes reported to make use of
them include the Miris, Mishmas, Abors, and some Nagas. Strickland puts forth evidence tending to
discredit beliefs and superstitions that these bugs are paralytic if eaten
without first removing the red bi-lobed stink gland lying between the abdomen
and metathorax. The sac contains a
highly volatile oil. Hoffmann (1947), in addition to Coridius (= Aspongopus) nepalensis,
Coridius chinensis and Cyclopelta subhimalayensis, lists Erthesina
fullo Thunb. as eaten by the Nagas in Assam. Hoffmann suggests that probably additional
species of pentatomids are used. Maxwell-Lefroy
(1971) mentions that in Assam the
large bugs of the genus Aspongopus
are eaten with rice. The painted bug, B.
picta, is eaten by the Ao-Naga, and its vernacular name is tsüngi (Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija 1997). Plant
associations of B. picta are Osbickia spp. and Schima wallichii.
Pyrrhocoridae (red bugs, fire bugs, etc.)
Lohita grandis Gray
This species, with the common name
of giant red bug, is called alu tsüngi
in the Ao-Naga vernacular (Meyer-Rochow and
Changkija). It is a large
species, more than 50 mm in length, and feeds on cotton in India (Essig 1942, p. 276).
Family unknown
Dolycoris indicus (author?)
The above is known as the bamboo
bug, and in the Ao-Naga vernacular as pollo
(Meyer-Rochow and Changkija). It
is associated with the plant, Dendrocalamus
hamiltoni.
Homoptera
Cicadidae (cicadas)
Cicada sp.
Cicada verides (author?)
In the Ao-Naga vernacular, these two
cicadas are known as loyang and chang changkok, respectively (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija).
Hymenoptera
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis dorsata Fabr., larva, pupa
Apis mellifera Linn.?, egg,
larva, pupa
Hutton (1921, p.72) reported
that the Sema Nagas, who occupy part of the watershed that divides Assam from
Burma, collect both the honey and grubs of wild rock bees. The nests are considered the private property
of the finder.
Irvine (1957, pp. 124-125)
states that bee brood is commonly eaten in the comb in India: "The larvae, pupae and eggs of the
honeybee (presumably Apis mellifera)
boiled in the honey comb are made into a relished soup in India where the
larvae and pupae of the giant bee Apis
dorsata are also eaten."
Maxwell-Lefroy (1971) mentions that larvae and pupae of A. dorsata are eaten by tribes "in
the wilder parts of India."
Also see Roy and Rao (1957) in the
Introduction.
Formicidae (ants)
Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.), larva, adult
Long (1901, p. 536) reports
the use of the red ant, O. smaragdina
as a regular item of food by the Murries of Bastar in the south of the Central
Provinces. The nests are collected
throughout the year, but especially during the dry season, torn open and the
contents shaken into a cloth. The
insects, both mature and immature, are beaten into a pulpy mass and enclosed in
a packet about the size of a goose egg and made of sal-leaves. The
packets are taken to the bazaar and sold.
To prepare the crushed ants for eating, they are mixed with salt,
tumeric and chillies, ground between stones, then eaten raw with boiled
rice. They are also sometimes cooked with
rice flour, salt, chillies, etc. into a thick paste, which is said to give
great powers of resistance to fatigue and the sun's heat. According to Bingham (1903, p.
311), Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr.
"is the notorious and vicious 'Red Ant' of India." It inhabits trees and its larvae spin the
silk from which its nest of leaves is constructed. In Kanara and some other parts of India, as
well as throughout Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand, the ants are pounded into a
paste which is eaten as a condiment with curry.
Also see Roy and Rao (1957) in the
Introduction.
Isoptera
Odontotermitidae
Odontotermes feae Linn.
See Gope and Prasad (1983) in the
Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis).
Termitidae
Termes sp.
Buchanan (1807, I, p. 7) states
that the white ant, or Termes, is a common article of food
used by a people known as the Chensu Carir.
Family uncertain
König (1779, pp. 1-28; vide
Bodenheimer 1951, p. 232) (awaiting re-translation) states that in some parts
of the "East Indies," live termite queens are given to the old to
strengthen their backs, and winged sexuals are collected before they
swarm. As summarized by Bodenheimer:
They
dig two holes into the termite nest, one to windward, the other to
leeward. At the leeward opening they
place the entrance of a pot which has previously been rubbed inside with an
aromatic herb, the bergera, which
is more esteemed than laurel leaves in Europe.
On the windward side they make a fire of stinking materials which not
only drives the insects into the pots, but frequently also the hooded snakes,
on which account the natives are obliged to be cautious when removing their
pots. By this method they catch great
quantities of termites, and with these, together with flour, they make a
variety of pastry, which they can afford to sell very cheaply to the poor
classes. He adds that in seasons when this kind of food is very plentiful,
termites eaten in too great quantities may bring about an epidemic colic and
dysentery which may cause death in two or three hours.
Broughton (1813; vide Bodenheimer
1951, p. 232), writing from a Mahratta camp, says that the prime minister,
Surgee-Rao, during a severe illness, was nourished at great cost mainly with
termite queens. Forbes (1813,
I, p. 305; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 233) confirms that termites are eaten by
the low castes in Mysore and the Carnatic.
Kirby and Spence
(1822 I, p. 305) describe how, in
the ceded districts of India, winged termites are collected by using smoke.
Fletcher (1914, p. 212) described
termite collecting as follows:
Not content with the capture of these
insects at their normal time of emergence from the nest, in many parts of
Madras members of certain castes anticipate their flight and build a small
domed hut of twigs and branches over the nest, the top of which is sliced off,
and a chatty of water is sunk in this or a hole dug and filled with water. A lighted lamp is now placed in the hut and
the emergence hastened by blowing into the nest a mixture of certain powdered
roots and seeds, whereupon the termites fly out and fall into the water whence
they are collected and sold in the bazaars for food amongst the lower castes.
Maxwell-Lefroy (1971) states that
termite queens are eaten in some places in India, and adds:
. . .
we can imagine no more dainty or tempting morsel than such an insect, which is
most carefully fed and tended and which presents a most pleasing
appearance. In some parts of South
India, every boy of an age of 12 to 14 is said to be given a termite queen to
eat, after which he runs a distance of two or more miles; having once done this
he will be able thereafter to endure fatigue and run well.
Rajan (1987) reports that after
the first showers of the rainy season, the winged adult sexual forms of
termites fly into houses in swarms, attracted by the lights - oil lamps,
electric lamps or tube lights. After
hovering around the lights, they lose their wings, drop to the floor, crawl for
a bit and die. In South India, in some houses, the next morning they are swept
up, cleaned, fried and eaten. In the
North Arcot district of Tamilnadu, the winged termites are known as Eesal in Tamil. Rajan reports that, at the first hint of rain
in the district, a forest tribe known as Irumbars
sets three or four lighted lamps around each termite mound. The next morning the dead termites are swept
up, cleaned, brought to the nearest big town and sold to merchants who fry part
of the catch and put it up for sale.
Part of it is mixed with fried ground nut. Bengal gram, puffed rice, salt and spices
which are added during frying, and then this portion is put up for sale. The fried pulses, spices and salt enhance the
taste. In Karnataka, the winged termite
is known as Eechalu hula. Again lights are used to collect it. Rajan notes that in some villages, the queen
termite is collected and fed raw to weak children. Although queens are very nourishing, only
occasional feeding of under-nourished children with a queen does not help much.
Lepidoptera
Arctiidae (tiger moths)
Diacrisia obliguae (author?)
The larvae are known as wooly bear
caterpillars and in the Ao-Naga vernacular as wakak
(Meyer-Rochow and Changkija).
Bombycidae (silkworm moths)
Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa
Bombyx sp.
The common names of the above are
silkworm and banana leaf-roller, respectively; the Ao-Naga vernacular names
are, respectively, mugamesen and mango longpen (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija).
Sridhara and Bhat (1965) studied the lipid composition
of silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.,
Mysore strain) mature (spinning) larvae, pupae and adults. Pupae and adults were higher in total fat, as
a percentage of dry weight, than were larvae (India Table 2; authors' Table
1). The iodine value tends to increase
from larva to pupa, while the phospholipid content decreases. The total lipid, iodine value and
phospholipid content are each similar in male and female pupae and remain
unchanged in the adult. It was found
that the amount of free fatty acids in the lipid of spinning larvae
progressively increased in the transformation to pupae and adults. The fat body contained the highest
concentration of fat and the haemolymph the least. The percentage of unsaturated fatty acids
increases from the larval to pupal stage (India Table 3; authors' Table 3),
from 64% in the former to 73% in the latter.
Total sterol, apparently cholesterol, was found to be 1.2% of total fat,
with most of it in the free form.
See also the section on
"Insects as Animal Feed in India."
Lasiocampidae (tent caterpillars, lappet moths)
Malacosoma sp.
Tent caterpillars are known as mesang-long in Ao-Naga vernacular (Meyer-Rochow and Changkija). The host plant is Schima wallichii.
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Antheraea assamensis (Westwood) (= assamica)
Antheraea (= Antheroea) paphia (Linn.), pupa
Antheraea roylei Moore
Samia (= Atticus) cynthia (Drury)
Samia (= Atticus) ricini (Boisduval), pupa
Maxwell-Lefroy (1971) states that
"rearers of wild silk such as tassar (Antheroea
paphia) are known to regard the pupae in the cocoon as a delicacy
and to eat it when the silk has been reeled off." According to Peigler (1993),
the tropical tasar industry (as opposed to temperate tasar) is based on A. paphia, and India's foreign exchange
earnings for exporting tasar to foreign countries, particularly the U.S.,
Germany and Japan, total hundreds of thousands of dollars annually.
About 40,000 families in
northeastern India are involved in ericulture (Chowdhury 1982, p. 1).
It is practiced as a cottage industry, and carried out traditionally by
village women during leisure hours; the women also do the spinning and
weaving. The eri silkworm, Samia ricini, feeds on castor. The cocoon does not yield a continuous thread
and must therefore be spun like cotton. Its value is thus much less than that
of the reeled cocoons of mulberry and muga, but eri cocoons are nevertheless
traded in sizable quantities in the weekly markets. For the tribals in northeastern India,
according to Chowdhury, the "eri chrysalid [pupa] is a delicacy and the
cocoon is more or less a byproduct."
It is the pre-pupa, actually, that is removed after the cocoon has been
completely formed (p. 64). The
production of eri cut cocoons in Assam and six other states in northeastern
India was estimated at about 183 metric tons in 1979. According to Peigler, the government of India
is currently "attempting to expand ericulture to the states west of Assam
where the castor can be grown in stressed ecosystems, providing leaves to feed
the eri silkworms and beans to yield castor oil."
There appears to be some error in
the application of names to edible saturniids by Meyer-Rochow and Changkija, who apply the names as follows
(scientific name, common name, vernacular name): Antheraea assamica, muga silkworm (emperor), mugamesen; Antheraea roylei, tusar oakworm (emperor), sarang mesen; Attacus cynthia, tusar oakworm, mugamesen; Attacus ricinis, erriworm, allishi mesen; Phyllosomia [sic] ricinae,
erriworm, errimesen. According to
Peigler (1993), Antheraea
assamensis is indeed the producer of muga silk; the tropical tasar
silk industry is based on Antheraea paphia,
of which "there are more than 25 `eco-races' in cultivation in various
districts and on various host plants; the temperate tasar silk is reared on oak
and is the product of a hybrid produced by crossing the native Himalayan Antheraea roylei with the Chinese A. pernyi, known as the Chinese oak silk
moth or tussah (or tusser) silk moth (the word `tussah' obviously being derived
from tasar. Finally, Samia ricini is the eri silk moth (the
reader interested in distinguishing between the wild silk producers should
consult Peigler 1993).
Mantodea
Hierodula coarctata (author?)
Hierodula westwoodi Kirby
The Ao-Naga vernacular name for H. coarctata is aei changkok (Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija). See Gope and
Prasad (1983) in the Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis of H. westwoodi).
Odonata
Aeschnidae (darners)
Acisoma parnorpaides (author?)
Aeschna spp., nymphs
The Ao-Naga vernacular names are atsü-kumbo and anga-mechep, respectively (Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija).
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Acrida gigantea (author)
Acridium (= Agridium) malanocorne Linn.
Acridium (= Agridium) peregrinum (author?)
Locusta mahrattarum Hope
Mecapoda elongata (author?)
Schistocerca gregaria Forskal
Hope (1842, p. 138) mentions
that locusts are salted and eaten in the Mahratta country and suggested the
name Locusta mahrattarum
Hope. C. Horne (1863), cited by Bodenheimer (1951, p. 232), also reported that locusts are eaten in India,
and according to Bargagli (1877, p. 8; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 232)
Indian sepoys made a famous curry with locusts as ingredients. Fletcher
(1914) quotes Kirby and Spence
that when a "cloud of locusts ... visited the Mahratta country, the common
people salted and ate them."
Das (1945) analyzed the
locust, Schistocerca gregaria,
for use both as food and as fertilizer (India Table 4; Das text table, p.
412). The locusts (adults) were high in
crude protein (61.75%, air-dried) and fat (16.95%). Das suggests that dried locusts could be
tinned in quantity to ensure their keeping indefinitely. He also takes a cue from Dr. A. Gunther
(1893) of the British Museum (Natural History) who observed that dried locusts
might be utilized for insectivorous cage and game birds "which are now
reared on ants' eggs at great expense."
Das suggests that "tons of dried locusts might be profitably
exported from India to the United Kingdom for this purpose." As fertilizer, Das found the locusts to be
fairly high in nitrogen, phosphate and potash, and notes that, while a menace
to crops it does contribute as fertilizer after death.
According to Maxwell-Lefroy (1971), "Locusts are appreciated in many parts of India
and it is said that dried locusts form an ingredient of curries even in
Calcutta, where a locust swarm is looked on as a providential occurrence."
Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija provide the
following common and vernacular names: Acrida
gigantea (grasshopper, chupong),
Agridium [sic] melanocorne (brown locust, koropong changkok), Agridium peregrinum (migratory locust, wara serapong), Mecopoda elongata (green locust, serapong changkok). See Gope and Prasad in the Introduction
and Table 1 (proximate analysis of A.
melanocorne).
Gryllidae (crickets)
Acheta bimaculatus De Geer
Brachytrupes achetinus (author?)
Gryllodes melanocephalus (author?)
Liogryllus bimaculatus (author?)
Again, there may be some confusion
in the names listed. Meyer-Rochow and
Changkija list the following English common names and vernacular
names for the above, in order: field cricket (chokokza),
common cricket (shati-chokok),
blackhead cricket (chokok), and
spotted cricket (metsü-chokok).
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa africana Beauv.
The Ao-Naga vernacular name for G. africana is chokok (Meyer-Rochow and
Changkija). See Gope and
Prasad (1983) in the Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis).
Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)
Holochlora albida (author?)
Holochlora indica Kirby
Lima cordid (author?)
The Ao-Naga vernacular name for H. albida is aya changkok (Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija), and the name for L.
cordid is alu changkok. See Gope and Prasad (1983) in the
Introduction and India Table 1 (proximate analysis of H. indica).
Family uncertain
Thylotropides ditymus (author?)
The English common name is nocturnal
grasshopper and the Ao-Naga vernacular name is aya
changkok, according to Meyer-Rochow
and Changkija.
Trichoptera
The Ao-Naga vernacular name for
edible caddicefly larvae is tsü-longben
(Meyer-Rochow and Changkija)
Insects
as Animal Feed in India
Bombycidae (silkworm moths)
Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa
Relative to poultry production, Chopra et al (1970) analyzed 33 samples of
feed ingredients from various parts of India for proximate chemical
composition, energy value, and the basic amino acids (lysine, histidine and
arginine). Samples included cereals (4
samples), cereal byproducts of milling
(5), cereal byproducts of processing (9), oilseed cake (7), animal
products (7), and legumes (soybean).
Deoiled silkworm pupae meal from Mysore (the only insect product
included) was the highest of all of the samples tested in crude protein (76.0%,
with free amino acids removed), lysine (5.36%), histidine (1.94%), and arginine
(4.13%). Lysine is not present in high
levels in proteins of plant origin and, therefore, according to the authors,
particularly likely to be deficient in rations.
Deoiled pupae were low in calcium and phosphorus compared to fish meals
and some other products. Soybean was
highest of the materials tested in gross energy with 5006 KCal/kg, with maize
gluten meal second (4542 to 4784 KCal/kg in 3 of 4 samples tested); the
silkworm pupae contained 4331 KCal/kg.
In chick feeding trials (white
leghorn) to 8 weeks of age, Ichhponani and
Malik (1971) found that half of
the fish meal (5%) and half of the groundnut cake (10%) in the ration can be
replaced by de-oiled silkworm pupae and corn-steep fluid, respectively, with no
reduction in final weight or feed/gain ratio.
When pupal meal replaced all of the fish meal, growth was significantly
reduced. The authors note that the fish
meal used in the experiment was of very fine quality containing about 62%
protein. The annual production of
silkworm pupae meal in India is 20,000 metric tons, while that of corn-steep
fluid (a byproduct of the corn starch industry) is 8,000 metric tons, thus making
them significant sources of protein.
Saikia et al
(1971) tested the effect on egg production
of using several agricultural and industrial waste products which are available
in Assam as substitutes for yellow maize and fishmeal which are very costly. The experimental layer mashes, containing
16-17% protein, were fed to White Leghorn pullets beginning at 16 weeks of age
for 179 days. The substituted
ingredients in the different diets included broken rice, silkworm pupae, meat
offal, soybean, distillery waste, and molasses.
The mash containing silkworm pupae cost the least (0.35 Rs./kg compared
to 0.68 for the control diet), gave the lowest feed to egg conversion ratio,
and the lowest cost per dozen eggs produced (India Table 5; authors' Table
3). Relative to other characteristics
studied, the pupae-fed pullets suffered the lowest mortality (nil), produced
the largest eggs (49.65 g), thickest shells (0.46 mm), light yellow yolks, and
graded AA. Of the other experimental
groups, two graded AA, three graded A.
Saikia et al concluded that the use of silkworm pupae and other waste
products as a replacement for fishmeal and yellow maize should be encouraged.
Noctuidae (noctuids)
Spodoptera litura (author?), larva
Sharma (1990) reported that
larvae of the above species that escaped from a laboratory colony were relished
by a cat that had taken up residence in the laboratory. When it was noticed that the larvae no longer
littered the floor, as they had formerly during peaks of abundance, the cat was
encouraged to maintain permanent residence.
Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)
Antheraea assamensis (Westwood), pupa
Bora and Sharma (1965) explored the utility of using
pupae of the Assam muga silkworm, Antheraea
(= Antharaca) assamensis (Westwood), as a high-protein
substitute for fishmeal in chick diets.
The supply of fishmeal is irregular and costly in Assam, while the
silkworm pupae offer an opportunity to utilize a local waste product, thus
being of benefit for both the silk industry in Assam and for local poultry
production. From proximate analysis, the
pupae (undefatted) contained 74.37% crude protein (India Table 6; authors' text
table, p. 355). Three experimental diets
were tested on chicks to 4 weeks of age:
1) Basal ration + 7% fishmeal (control diet); 2) Basal ration + 4.67% silkworm pupal powder
(protein content equivalent to 7% fishmeal) + 2% limestone + 1% bone meal; 3) Basal
ration + 4.67% silkworm pupal powder.
Weight gains were not significantly different between chicks fed diets 1
and 2, respectively, but gains were significantly reduced in chicks on diet
3. The lower growth rate on diet 3 was
attributed to a deficiency in the ration of calcium and phosphorus (see India
Table 6). Slightly accelerated growth of
chicks on diets 2 and 3 toward the end of the third week indicated the presence
of an unidentified growth factor in the silkworm pupae (see also the results of
Wijayasinghe and Rajaguru [1977] in Sri Lanka).
Miscellaneous
Venkat Rao
et al (1960) note that earlier
studies have shown that insect infestation of foodstuffs results in loss of
thiamine and possibly other B-vitamins, an increase in fat acidity, and
contamination with insect excreta and body fragments. They also cite studies showing that
consumption of infested foodstuffs caused digestive disturbances and pulmonary
disorders, or diarrhoea. Thus, they
investigated the effect of feeding insect-infested jowar (Sorghum vulare) and Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), simultaneously in the
diet, to albino rats. The jowar was
infested (25% damaged kernals) by Sitophilus
oryza Linn., and the Bengal gram (25% damaged kernals) by Bruchus chinensis Linn. In rats fed for eight weeks, weight gains
were slightly (but not significantly) greater in the rats fed the uninfested
jowar diet. There was no significant
difference in the haemoglobin and red blood cell count of rats on the infested
and uninfested diets. Average fat
content of the livers of rats fed the infested jowar diet was significantly
higher than that of the rats on the uninfested diet. Histological examination of the livers of
rats fed for six months on the infested jowar diet showed various degrees of
centrilobular fatty infiltration, which was not observed in the livers of rats
on the control diet. The authors discuss
the significance of the fatty livers produced by insect-infested jowar in
relation to nutritional studies by others.
For insects (grasshoppers) as
fertilizer, see Das (1945) under Orthoptera above.
NEPAL
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
Apis laboriosa (author?),
larva
Bee brood (larvae and pupae) is widely consumed by
Nepalese (Dr. F. Neupane and
others at the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur, and the
Ministry of Agriculture, Kathmandu, pers. comm. 1988).
In their beautiful book of photographs, "Honey
Hunters of Nepal," Valli and Summers
(1988) mention (and illustrate, Fig. 80) that in harvesting the
honey and wax from the huge nests of the wild bee, Apis laboriosa, the hunters squeeze the white fluid from the
larvae into a small pot of heated honey.
Rich in protein, the mixture is considered to be a tonic. The larval liquid is also cooked with chilis
and salt. The authors mention that:
The honey, which is valued as a
universal remedy and tonic, is sold to villagers or exchanged for grain,
yogurt, milk, a chicken, or even a day's work.
The price of a pound is ten rupees, the equivalent of fifty cents, a
luxury in a country where some 60 percent of the rural population lives on less
than two rupees a day. The wax is sold
in Kathmandu to the artisans who use it in the lost-wax process of casting
statues.
The Nepalese term for
the bee brood preparation is bakuti,
according to Burgett (1990).
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Following grasshopper invasions from India, fried
grasshoppers are sold on the streets of Kathmandu and elsewhere (S. Joshi and Mrs. R.B. Pradhan, Ministry of Agriculture, pers. comm. 1988).
Insects
as Animal Feed in Nepal
Saturniidae
(giant silkworm moths)
Samia
ricini (Boisduval), pupa
Ericulture involving this species is a cottage industry
in Nepal, as it is in India. The pupae
are not used as food for humans in Nepal, however, as they are in India, but
there is interest in using them as feed for poultry and pond fish (F.P.
Neupane, Inst. of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur, pers. comm.
1988). The species offers an almost
ideal example of sustainable agriculture: the castor plant grows on poor soils,
helping to prevent erosion; castor bean oil is sold for medicinal and
industrial uses; excess leaves are fed to the caterpillars which produce silk
and a pupa that is a high-protein food or animal feedstuff, and the caterpillar
frass and other rearing residue can be used for pond fish culture.
Neupane et al (1990) investigated the production biology
of S. ricini (as S. cynthia ricini Hutt.) in Nepal and
found that six generations per year are produced when the caterpillars are
grown on castor leaves. They do not
recommend rearing during the cold months, November-April, however, because the
life cycle requires 114-126 days for completion compared to only 38-61 days
from March to November. Cassava can also be used as a host plant, but mean
weights of the larvae, pupae and cocoons are slightly lower. Among the benefits of ericulture, the authors
report that quality leaves of both castor and cassava are available throughout
the year; farmers can use their extra time for silkworm rearing and very little
monetary investment is required; and even low-skilled children and older folks
in a family can participate in the rearing, thus enhancing employment and the
economic status of poor and subsistence farmers. If cassava is the host plant,
rather than castor, the roots are used as food and animal feed and the old
plants as fuelwood.
Miscellaneous
In the hill country toward the border with Tibet, giant
earthworms are collected during the monsoon season, held in water overnight to
void ingested soil, then dried and stored as provisions which last for several
months (F. Neupane, pers. comm. 1988).
PAKISTAN
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
According to Das
(1945), inhabitants of Makran in
Baluchistan and some tribes in Sind reportedly use locusts as food, both in the
fresh and the dried state. Makranis call
the locusts Hawaii Jhinga,
meaning aerial crustacean, and find the taste similar to that of crayfish.
SRI
LANKA
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Batocera
rubus Linn. (= B. albofasciata
Deg.), adult?
Netolitzky (1920) reported that the longicorn beetles, Batocera albofasciata Deg. and B. rubus Linn. are eaten in Sri Lanka and
Indonesia.
Curculionidae
(weevils, snout beetles)
Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus Oliv., larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) chinensis
(author?)
Gourou (1948; vide Bodenheimer 1951; awaiting
re-translation) reported consumption of Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus Oliv., and Ghesquièré
(1947) mentions that Calandra chinensis is a widespread
species that is consumed by people from Sri Lanka to China.
Hymenoptera
Anthophoridae
(carpenter bees)
Xylocopa sp.
According to Knox
(1817, p. 48; vide Bodenheimer
1951, pp. 245-246), Xylocopa and
other large bees are eaten.
Apidae
(honey bees)
When a bee swarm is discovered on a tree, a burning torch
is held under it to make the bees drop (Knox
1817, p. 48). They are
carried home, cooked and eaten. Also,
when a tree containing a bees' nest is felled, the bees are collected along
with the honey. When cooked they are an
esteemed dish.
Spittel (1924) and others
mentioned by Bodenheimer (1951, pp. 245-253) discuss honey-hunting by the
Veddas of Sri Lanka, and more briefly, by other Asiatics.
Insects
as Animal Feed in Sri Lanka
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa
Wijayasinghe and Rajaguru
(1977) conducted tests to determine the effects of silkworm pupae
(SWP) as a replacement for various levels of the local fishmeal on the
performance of broiler starters, broiler finishers, and laying hens. They used a dry, mechanical and manual method
for removing the chitinous exoskeleton, in order to avoid the loss of soluble
nutrients that can occur with wet methods.
The pupal residue was not defatted although the pupal oil contains
nearly 75% unsaturated fatty acids, which imparts a peculiar odor, and some
previous investigators have reported that the flesh and eggs of animals fed
undefatted SWP have an unpleasant odor.
Others have not observed this effect and it was not observed in this
investigation. The authors note that the
pupal oil, with its high unsaturated fatty acid content has a number of
valuable industrial uses, and there are a number of patented biological and
chemical methods for deodorizing the pupae.
They also note that a large quantity of SWP can be expected to be available
as a byproduct of the rapidly expanding sericulture industry in Sri Lanka.
The results of proximate and amino acid analyses are
shown in Sri Lanka Tables 1 and 2, respectively (authors' Tables 1 and 2
also). Compared to the local Grade I
fishmeal, the SWP were high in dry matter, protein and fat content, and
relatively low in total ash and in calcium and phosphorus. In the feeding trials, experimental rations
were balanced according to 1966 recommendations of the U.S. National Research
Council. The investigators summarized
their study as follows: "The
results indicated that SWP could successfully replace local fish-meal in
poultry rations. The presence of an
unidentified growth factor in SWP for chicks was also observed. Improvement in reproductive performance in
terms of hatchability of eggs and weight of chicks at hatching time were
observed when SWP was included in layers rations. A favourable alteration of the sex ratio in
chicks towards femininity was observed."
The authors note that SWP rations need supplementation with calcium and
phosphorus. They also mention that the
price of SWP must be more reasonable if farmers are to use it as a high-protein
feed supplement.
Miscellaneous
Papilionidae
(swallowtail butterflies)
Maitipe (1984) suggests
that one area of promise in trying to meet problems of tropical malnutrition is
the exploitation of certain insect larvae.
One candidate, Maitipe believes, is the larva of the swallowtail
butterfly, Papilio polytes
(Papilionidae), which feeds on certain alkaloid-rich leaves and completes the
fourth instar within 17 days at 28C. The
larva accepts different alkaloid-containing leaves, but the growth rate is
faster on some than on others, for example, citrus leaves as compared to
"woodapple" leaves. Maitipe
suggests that high food conversion efficiency, such as is the case with
leaf-eating caterpillars, should be an important criterion in looking for
future sources of protein. This insect
has no history of consumption by humans, insofar as this author is aware.
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Pp.
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