Chapter 24

 

                                             SOUTHEASTERN ASIA: THAILAND

 

Taxonomic Inventory

   Taxa and life stages consumed 

 

Coleoptera

 

Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)

Buprestis sp., adult

Chrysobothris femorata (author?), larva, adult

Sternocera aequisignata Saund. (= equisignata and acquisignata), adult

Sternocera sp., adult

 

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Apriona germari Hope, larva, adult

 

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Hypidisa talaca Walk., adult

Hypomeces squamosus (Fabr.), adult

Rhynchophorus schah Fabr., larva, adult

 

Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)

Cybister limbatus Fabr., adult

Cybister (= Cybis?) sp., adult

Cybister tripunctatus (author?) (= tripuncta), larva, adult

 

Haliplidae (crawling water beetles)

Haliplid sp., adult

 

Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)

Hydrous sp., adult

 

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

 Adoretus compressus Web., adult

Adoretus convexus Burm., adult

Anomala antiqua Gyll.), adult

Apogonia spp.

Copris spp., adults

Exopotus sp., adult

Helicopris sp., adult

Holotrichia sp., adult

Lepidiota sp., larva, adult

Lepidiota stigma (Fabr.), larva, adult

Leucopholis (= Leucophosis?) sp., adult

Onitis sp., adult

Onitis virens Lansb., adult

Onthophagous sp., adult

Oryctes rhinoceros (Linn.), larva, pupa, adult

Psilophosis sp., adult

Xylotrupes Gideon Linn., larva, adult

 

Hemiptera

 

Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)

Lethocerus (= Belostoma) indicus Lep. & Serv., adult

 

Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)

Sphaerodema molestum (author?), adult

Sphaerodema rustica Fabr., adult

 

Nepidae (water scorpions)

Laccotrephes grisea Guer., adult

Nepa sp., adult

 

Notonectidae (back swimmers)

Notonecta undulata (author?) (? = Notonita ?;=Notonica intermerata), adult

 

Pentatomidae (stink bugs)

Tesseratoma (= Teeseratama) javanica Thunb., nymph, adult

Tesseratoma papillosa Drury, adult

 

Homoptera

 

Cicadidae (cicadas, psyllids, etc.)

Cosmopsatria sp., adult

Dundulia entemerata Walk. (? = Dandubia, ?;= Dundubia, ?; = Dunduebia intermerata), adult

Dundubia sp., adult

Magicicada spp., adults

Rihana sp., adult

 

Kerridae (lac scales)

Kerria (= Laccifer) lacca Kerr.

 

Hymenoptera

 

Anthophoridae (carpenter bees)

Xylocopa confusa Perez, adult

Xylocopa latipes Dr., adult

 

Apidae (honey bees)

Apis dorsata Fabr., larva, pupa

Apis florae Fabr., larva, comb/all stages

Apis indica (author?), larva, pupa

Apis sp., larva, pupa, comb/larva

 

Formicidae (ants)

Crematogaster sp., larva

Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.), all stages

 

Halictidae (halictids)

Nomia sp., larva, pupa

 

Vespidae (wasps, hornets)

Eumenes petiolata Fabr., larva

Vespa cincta Fabr., larva, adult

Vespa sp., larva

 

Isoptera

 

Rhinotermitidae

Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar, winged adult

 

Termitidae

Termes flavicole (author?), winged adult

 

Lepidoptera

 

Bombycidae (silkworm moths)

Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa

 

Cossidae (carpenter moths, leopard moths)

Xyleutes leuconotus (author?), larva

Zeuzera coffeae (author?), larva

 

Pyralidae (snout and grass moths)

Pyralid sp.

 

Mantodea

 

Family uncertain

Hierdula sp., eggs, adults

Tenodera sinensis (author?)

 

Odonata

 

Aeshnidae (darners)

Anax (=Anaz) guttatus Burm., adult

Aeschnidae spp., nymphs

 

Libellulidae (common skimmers)

Libellula (= Libella?; = Ubellela?) pulchella Drury

Libellulidae spp., nymphs

 

Macromiidae (belted skimmers, river skimmers)

Macromia sp., nymph

 

Family uncertain

Epophtholmia vittigera (author?), nymph

Rhyothemis sp., nymph

 

Orthoptera

 

Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)

Aelopus tamulus Fabr.

Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (author?), adult

Locusta migratoria Linn.

Locusta (= Locustra?) sp., adult

Oxya japonica japonica (author?)

Patanga succincta (author?)

 

Blattidae (roaches)

Blatta orientalis Linn., egg, adult

Stylophyga rhombifolia Stoll., egg adult

 

Gryllidae (crickets)

Brachytrupes (= Brachytrypes) portentosus Licht., adult

Brachytrupes sp.

Gryllus testaceous Walck.

Liogryllus bimaculatus De Geer (= Gryllus?; = Acheta bimaculata?; = G. bimaculata?; = G. bimarculata?)

 

Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)

Gryllotalpa africana Beauv., adult

 

Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)

Scudderia sp., adult

 

Phasmida

 

Family uncertain

Eurycnema versirubra Serville, frass

 

 

            Bristowe (1932) published the first definitive paper on entomophagy in Thailand.  Bristowe found that Thai and Lao peasants ate similar diets, consisting of rice with fish supplying the main protein constituent, but that the Lao, in addition, ate considerable numbers of insects, each in its particular season.  Although the Laos are concentrated mainly in northern and eastern Thailand, their choice of insects and order of preference were found to be remarkably consistent throughout the country, the most popular being the giant waterbug, dung beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers and the larvae of Hymenoptera, beetles and moths.  Up to 4d. may be paid for a single Helicopris dung beetle or giant water-bug.  Exceptions included dragonflies and their nymphs which are eaten only in the Ubon area and at Hua Hin, respectively, and cockroaches which are eaten at Korat and Hua Hin, but said in other areas to "stink."  Cockroach eggs, however, are fried and eaten by children in all districts.  Some species, such as the cicada, Dundubia intemerata, are restricted in range and therefore not known in other districts.  Bristowe was impressed by the Lao knowledge of insect life-histories.

            Bristowe states that, "As regards their reasons for eating insects, I found that without question the Laos like them.  Some fetch high prices and the capture of others is fraught with considerable risk."  Bristowe sampled most of the insects eaten by the Laos and "found none of them distasteful and a few quite palatable, notably the giant water-bug."  Dung beetles were "by no means unpleasant."  Salt is usually added to the insects, or sometimes chilli or the leaves of scented herbs, and sometimes they are eaten with rice or added to sauces or curry.  Bristowe likened the flavor of termites, cicadas and crickets to that of lettuce.

            Thais look askance at the Lao because of their insect-eating habits, particularly their liking for dung beetles and their larvae.  The Thais themselves eat certain kinds of insects, however, although not making such a general practice of it.  Bristowe states: "Giant water-bugs are added to royal sauces, Duang grubs (Zeuzera coffeae) were much prized by the late king, and certain kinds of ant and ant grub are pickled for the consumption of good family Siamese in Bangkok.  Wasp grubs and honey, locusts, crickets and even big Mygalomorph spiders are occasionally eaten by some of the Siamese peasants."

            Bristowe stated that his list of the insects eaten was probably far from complete, but he was confident that the major species were included.  His findings are further reported below under the appropriate orders and families.  Bristowe concluded his extremely valuable paper by listing some medicinal uses of insects in Thailand.

            Bristowe (1953) rehashes his previous paper (1932) without adding any new information.  Nakao (1964; vide Hirashima et al 1979) reported observations on human consumption of insects in Thailand [this paper, in Japanese, has not yet been seen].

            Mungkorndin (1981; vide Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984) discusses the edible plants and animals throughout the whole of Thailand.  [This paper has not yet been seen.]

            In an important paper, Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) provided the results of proximate, mineral and vitamin analyses on 12 species of insects that are consumed in the north and northeast of Thailand where insect consumption is common practice.  Insects are the common source of protein and energy for the rural farmers of the region and therefore nutritionally important according to the authors, who also note that, despite this, there is no information on nutritive values of insects in the latest "Nutrient Composition Table of Thai Foods," published by the Nutrition Division, Department of Health.

            The authors note that their analyses included only some of the species that are consumed in northeast Thailand.  The insects for analysis were taken live (the majority of samples) by people in the villages or bought at markets in Ubon and Mahasarakam provinces.  The insects were killed in boiling water and only the edible parts were retained.  They were then sundried, baked at 50oC and ground to a powder.  In a food consumption survey conducted during the insect consumption season in Ubon in the villages where samples were collected, it was found that 20-60 g of insects are consumed per day, providing 1-5 g of protein, 1-50 g of fat, 1-5 g of carbohydrate and 10-350 kcal of energy.  The eight-month season of edible insect availability and consumption found by Sungpuag and Puwastien is shown in Thailand Table 1 (see authors' Table 1).

            Although Sungpuag and Puwastien conducted analyses on baked and dried samples, the nutrient compositions are reported in grams or milligrams per 100 grams of live-weight (Thailand Tables 2 and 3; see authors' Tables 2 and 3).  Some vitamins were lost in the drying process, thus are underestimated in the tabular data.  From the data, the authors conclude that the insects are a good source of protein and high in several minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium), but low in iron.  Vitamin B2 and niacin were higher than vitamin B1.  The authors conclude that there are enough nutrients in insects that they should be recommended to the rural people for consumption and information should be provided that would make their use as food as efficient as possible.  Restraint should be exercised in the use of pesticides so that insects remain available as a food source.  Finally, more studies should be conducted on the nutritive value of insects, especially on their amino acid content.

            Sungpuag and Puwastien briefly discussed in tabular form the methods by which the various species are prepared for consumption.  These are included below under the appropriate orders and families.

            In an excellent paper, accompanied by numerous black-and-white photographs, Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) provide data on 15 species of insects found in the public market in Khon Kaen in northeastern Thailand.  The authors state that the insects are an important protein source for the people in this region, and that they are "saleable in urban areas, being quality food available in quantity."  They also say, "To ensure a continued supply, however, collection methods will need to be improved and rearing methods established."  In addition to the insects discussed, the authors note that insects are also sold unsorted in bulk.

            Insects reported by Watanabe and Satrawaha are discussed below under the appropriate orders and families.  Relative to seasonal availability of the insect foods they discuss, the rainy season extends from May to October, the end of the rainy season refers to September-October, and the dry season extends from February to April.  Prices are presumably those during the period 1979-1981.

            In a study of natural food sources occuring in northeastern Thailand during the rainy season, Somnasang et al (1984, pp. 59-60) report all of the species reported earlier by Sungpuag and Puwastien, plus the following:  Coleoptera, Chrysobothris femorata (Buprestidae); Homoptera, Magicicada spp. (Cicadidae); Isoptera, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar); and Odonata, Ubellula pulchella.  The authors say, in an introductory summation, that protein supplies are confined to animals and insects while vegetables are the source of minerals and vitamins.  In years of abundant rainfall, the surplus of unconventional foods gathered from nature added to family income apart from the proportions consumed daily.  The natural foods are gathered especially from paddy fields, from upland and forested areas, and from natural ponds and streams.

            Somnasang et al state (p. 12, translation):  "Insects are a very important source of protein for villagers in the Northeast, especially during the time that fish, prawn, and frogs are difficult to find.  Besides providing protein insects also provide vitamins and minerals.  It is safe to eat the insects because there is no pesticide.  Most of the time people eat the insects cooked.  Villagers said that nowadays insects are difficult to find."  In one village in Chaiyapoom Province, villagers said that there are not many insects now because there are not many trees in the woods.

            The authors mention that insects found in the rice paddies during the rainy season are water bugs, grasshoppers, true water beetles, winged termites, crickets and mole crickets (p. 26).  Insects found in the woods and hills include the June beetles, crickets, true water beetles, cicadas, metallic wood-borers, and short-tailed crickets (p. 28).  Insects found in water are the dragonfly naiads, true water beetles, and crickets (p. 29).  While most insects are more plentiful when there have been good rains, there are more grasshoppers when it is dry (p. 8).

            The giant water bugs are collected using nets or at lights.  The whole bug except the wings is eaten.  It is grilled and then put in sauce to lend the desired odor or essence.  Female water bugs are sold two for one baht in the market, while male bugs, which have more of the preferred odor, sell for two baht each (p. 32).  Grasshoppers and true water beetles are wrapped in banana leaf and grilled to put in soup.  Grasshoppers are sold for one baht per bag.  Winged termites are grilled or fried.

            Somnasang et al (1985a) report that fewer insect foods are available during the cool season than during the rainy season in northeast Thailand (p. 29).  Crickets are an exception, more being found in the cool season when as many as 10 may be collected from one cricket hole.  Insects collected during the cool season include (p. 39):  Coleoptera, Cybister limbatus (Dytiscidae); Onitis spp. and Copris spp. (Scarabaeidae); Hemiptera, Notonita undurata (Notonectidae); Homoptera, Magicicada spp. (Cicadidae); Odonata, Libellula pulchella; Orthoptera, Gryllus bimarculatus (Gryllidae), and Gryllotalpa africana (Gryllotalpidae); and an insect called mang-kha-noon.  Cicadas are in season in February.  They are fried and ground to powder in the same way as water bugs are prepared.  A few other remarks are made regarding insect food preparation or seasonal abundance (pp. 19-22), but the information has been noted previously.  Somnasang et al state that the main sources of food for family consumption in the cool season are crops and vegetables, and for meat, chicken.  The forest remains a source of mushrooms at the onset of the cool season (November).  Fish is the food most commonly purchased.

            Somnasang et al (1985b) repeat information provided in the earlier report by this group (Somnasang et al 1984).  Somnasang et al  (1986) report several insects among the natural food resources in northeast Thailand villages during the summer season.  These include the buffalo dung beetles, Onitis spp.  and Copris spp.; winged termites of Reticulitermes flavipes; the giant water-bug, Lethocerus indicus; the dragonfly naiad, Ubellula pulchella (known as noey); and red ant's eggs.  The authors point out that summer natural food sources are limited compared to those in the rainy and cool seasons.  Less wood is needed for fuel and more people are employed in the summer, so fewer trips are made to the forest.

            The Ministry of Public Health (1987) provided an attractive booklet with colored illustrations called the "Manual for Using Food which Provides High Protein and Fat in Rural Areas."  It is intended for selecting foods for malnourished infants and pre-school children.  The Nutrition Division, based on research, developed nine "supplementary food" formulas that can be used to supplement the food of infants age 3 months and older.  The formulas are based on locally produced foods; Formula 3, for example, consists of 650 g of rice, 250 g of mung bean, and 100 g of white sesame.  The protein and energy value of this formula is shown in Thailand Table 4 (MPH manual p.4) along with values given in the booklet for several insects and selected other foods, a total of 60 foods (insect data shown on MPH pp. 14-15).  The daily requirement of protein and calories for Thai children are also shown in Table 4 (on MPH p. 16).

            Gorton (1989) states:

 

 Drought, deforestation and overpopulation have left Northeast Thailand's poorest with even less than before.  Still, 'Esarn' people, attuned to the weather and soil, have adapted in their own unusual, albeit practical, way.  While swarms of insects have invaded precious rice and corn fields, villagers have fought back with their own appetites, instead of the more expensive and dangerous chemicals.  At the same time, villagers have been able to increase their sagging protein intake.

 

Gorton notes that more than 19 varieties of insects are eaten by villagers and attributes to a leading Thai nutritionist the statement that "Insects are becoming an increasingly important protein supplement for the diets in the Northeast."  Gorton mentions Oun Pachusoo, 40, who has a family of four to feed.  She uses an old cloth to trap water bugs in ponds and paddies and lift them out of the water.  Selling her water bugs at the Roi-Et open market, she estimates she earns 50 to 60 baht (U.S. $1.90 to $2.30) a day.

            According to Gorton, villagers have been able to stem the damage to crops by "turning foe into food," a most notable example being the grasshoppers or "flying shrimp", which feed on corn seedlings, sugarcane, rice and banana leaves.  Government spraying programs involving "massive amounts of chemicals" became less and less successful, while "being expensive and hazardous to health."  Villagers sometimes ate insects dead from pesticides, and as recently as 1986, there were stories of villagers dying or being seriously injured by chemicals ingested along with the insects.  "Large cross-province shipments of grasshoppers killed by pesticides, then fried to a crisp in cooking oil were a lucrative business for some."

            Gorton reports that, as a result of information from news reports and health officials, some districts and villages gave up the spraying in favor of grasshopper catching competitions.  Health and culinary experts gave demonstrations on the best way to clean and prepare the grasshoppers.  Gorton notes that, "Those who can catch the insects in mass quantity are able to sell them on the village roadside or become involved with the lucrative 'export' trade to Bangkok."

            Of red ant "eggs", which have long been considered a delicacy in northeast Thailand, Gorton says:  "No fine restaurant in a provincial capital would be found without its supply of the foodstuff.  The eggs are of great nutritional value because they are often eaten raw, mixed together with ants, chillies, chopped lemon grass, radishes and various other additives.  On a good day, villagers can make a few dollars of marketable food, though the villagers often prefer to eat them at home as a kind of special treat for a successful walk in the wilderness."

            Jonjuapsong (1996) discusses collection and preparation methods for several of the edible insects in Thailand (see under appropriate taxonomic groups below). He notes that children eagerly collect insects flying around the gas-powered lanterns and consider them delicious.  Insects are a good source of protein for people in the countryside, and their taste is "not inferior to that of beef, pork, chicken, shrimp or fish in the least; for example the flesh of praying mantis is very similar to that of shrimp mixed with fresh mushrooms."  Entomophagy also contributes to pest control, as many of the edible species are destructive to plants.  More than 50 species are eaten (roasted, boiled, sautéed or pounded) by people from northeast Thailand, and it is part of the culture. The tabularized nutritional values presented are those published originally by Sungpuag and Puwastien.

            Yhoung-aree and Puwastien (1997) note that, because of transportation and other difficulties, "conventional protein" sources such as fish, poultry, pork, beef, eggs and milk, are not reliably available in some parts of Thailand, the north and northeast being two such regions.  Insects have served since ancient times, however, as an alternative source of protein which helps to overcome the periodic or seasonal scarcity of the conventional sources.  In addition, some insects have long been important "cultural foods" and are widely used not only in the rural north and northeast but throughout the country.  Two consumption patterns exist. In rural areas, insects serve as main dishes and are eaten with staple foods such as rice, while urban dwellers mainly use insects as snack foods, although some, such as the giant water bug, may be used as an ingredient in certain popular dishes. 

            To investigate consumption patterns in rural areas, Yhoung-aree and Puwastien conducted four dietary assessments representing different seasons among 140 school-aged children  in northeast Thailand. The first assessment, in October (the transition month between the rainy and cool-dry seasons) revealed that 15% of the children ate insects and averaged 15 g/person/meal.  In  the second assessment, in December (the dry cool-season [and a period of low insect availability]), 2% ate insects and averaged 26 g/person/meal.  In the third period, in February-March (late cool-dry season), 16% ate insects with an average consumption of 16 g/person/meal. In the fourth assessment, April to early May (the hot-dry season [and the period of greatest insect availability]), 32% of respondents consumed insect dishes and averaged 26 g/person/meal.  Although volume of consumption was relatively low, the authors believe these data confirm that insects play a substantial role in household food security, "particularly since among the rural poor, insects can feed a sizable family at very little (if any) monetary cost."

            In urban areas, although many are "squeamish" about eating them, insects are purchased and well-accepted by people of various economic levels and some insects, such as wasps, bamboo caterpillars, crickets, locusts and others, are sold as delicacies in the finest restaurants and food shops.  The authors state that urbanites who like insect dishes may be mainly rural insect eaters who have migrated to the city.  The authors mention also that the Thai government has played a role in promoting insect consumption, especially relative to locust plagues, and, as a result fried locusts and locust fritters appeared widely in city markets.  Some people became wary, however, following reports that people had died after eating insects, possibly caused by insecticide contamination.

            According to Yhoung-aree and Puwastien, cooking methods for insects are not different from those used for other foods, and they indicate which methods are most popular for the different insect groups.  For example, they say, relative to frying/frittering:

 

            Deep-frying is the main technique used to prepare bamboo caterpillars. This dish is delicious and tastes much like french fries.  Hence, it becomes a popular dish even with urban dwellers of all economic classes. However the price is quite expensive compared to other insects (and some meat sources), reaching up to 150-200 Baht per kilogram of cooked bamboo caterpillars (Note: approx. 24 Baht = 1 US$). Deep frying is also used for crickets, locusts, and beetles. Fried locusts or grasshoppers, known as "sky prawns," are a popular and expensive dish in urban areas as well as rural ones.  Cricket and locust fritters are also one of the most common dishes sold in urban restaurants and as street foods in large markets such as the weekend market in Bangkok, the night market in the Patpong area, large markets in Chiangmai and so on.  These dishes are normally served as a relish.

 

            According to the authors, roasting is the most common method of cooking for all insects except bees and wasps which are automatically smoked during their collection. Baking/barbecuing may be used to cook crickets and giant water bugs.  All kinds of insects, especially locusts, wasps, ant eggs and beetles, are suitable for preparing spicy soup/curry, and the authors mention that many kinds of insects are suitable for preparation as homoke, which entails mixing them with chilli-based ingredients, and wrapping the mixture in a banana leaf which is then either baked or steamed, resulting in a red custard-like dish.  Minced insects (crickets, beetles, cicadas and giant water bugs are suitable) may be prepared as jaew (spicy chilli paste) or pone (watery chilli sauce), foods which are commonly eaten by indigenous people.  Several less commonly used methods are mentioned, such as dipping the insects in eggs and frying or adding them as part of scrambled eggs or omelettes.

            Noting that the protein content of conventional animal sources ranges from 3.5 g/100 g in milk to 18-20 g/100 g in meat, and comparing this to data from an earlier study on nutrient content of insects (see Thailand Tables 2 and 3), the authors consider insects to be quantitatively good sources of protein, but low in fat, except for young female red ants.  They cite earlier studies on amino acid scores showing insects' protein quality ranging from 48 to 80% of the FAO/WHO reference protein.  They note, from data on bamboo caterpillars, that frying results in a marked increase in protein and energy content.  And, as shown in Thailand Table 3, insects are also good sources of certain minerals and vitamins, especially phosphorus, potassium, iron, riboflavin and niacin.

            Yhoung-aree and Puwastien conclude by saying that although insects are not part of the staple diet of urbanites, they are significant sources of protein for rural inhabitants.  Unfortunately, rapidly changing socio-economic factors such as people seeking off-farm employment and consequent reduction in rural collectors and consumers and increasing environmental degradation may reduce the availability and consumption of insects.  In the immediate future, however, because of their cheap availability and marketability, they should continue to play an important role in household food security.   

 

                                                                     Coleoptera

 

 Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)

Buprestis sp., adult

Chrysobothris femorata (author?), larva, adult

Sternocera aequisignata Saund. (= equisignata and acquisignata), adult

Sternocera sp., adult

 

            The woodboring buprestid, Sternocera equisignata Saund. (Lao name:  Mang Khup; Thai name:  Mang Thup), is sought not only by the Laos for food but by the Chinese for decorative purposes, the metallic green and gold elytra being used in clothes, jewelry and ornaments (Bristowe 1932).  The Chinese breed them for this purpose, and in Bangkok they sell for 1 satang or approximately 1/4d. each.  They are picked off of shrubs by the Laos who roast them and squeeze out the feces before eating them.

            Vara-asavapati et al (1975, pp. 13-50) discuss numerous insects used as food in northeast Thailand.  Included among the Coleoptera are more than a dozen species of beetles representing seven families.  In the family Buprestidae, the metallic woodborers, two species, Buprestis sp. and Sternocera aequisignata, are consumed, in the adult stage (p. 42).  They are known as ma-langtap or ma-lang khap.  They feed on tree leaves and are easily collected by shaking the trees; they do not fly away, but fall to the ground and feign death.  They are fried and the head, wings and legs are removed before they are eaten.

            Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) summarize the Sternocera sp. (metallic wood borer) adult as follows:  Malaeng Tub; 1 baht/2 adults; end of rainy season; live.  The adults of Buprestis sp. and S. aequisignata feed on the leaves of tamarind trees, according to Jonjuapsong (1996), who also mentions the ease of collecting them by shaking the branches because they do not try to escape when they fall to the ground.  They are prepared by roasting or frying without oil, then removing the head, wings and legs.

            See also Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1984) in the Introduction, and Ngamsomgsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.

 

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Apriona germari Hope, larva, adult

 

            Among the beetles, Bristowe (1932) was unable to determine the specific identity of the larvae of a number of longicorns (Cerambycidae) and members of other families that are eaten by the Lao.  The larvae, extracted from wood, are roasted.

            Among the Cerambycidae or long-horned beetles, both the larvae and adults of Apriona germari Hope (known as ma-lang-kok or duang-nuatyao) are eaten (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 43).  This is a large species, the adults measuring 3-5 cm with the female the larger, and the larvae measuring 5-6 cm in length.  It is a serious pest of mulberry and kapok trees among others.  Eggs are laid from May to July and the life cycle takes about one year with 9-10 months in the larval stage.  The adults are caught by hand, and the wings, head and legs are removed before they are grilled or fried.  The larvae, and sometimes the pupae, are fried or cooked in banana leaves.  When fried, larvae, pupae and adults are fried without oil (Jonjuapsong 1996).

            See also Bristowe (1932) in the Introduction.

 

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Hypodisa talaca Walk., adult

Hypomeces squamosus (Fabr.), adult

Rhynchophorus schah Fabr., larva, adult

 

            Both the larvae and adults of the large curculionid weevil, Rhynchophorus schah F., are sought for food (Bristow 1932).  The larvae are extracted from coconut palms, and roasted.

            Adults of two species of snout beetles, Hypomeces squamosus and Hypodisa talaca Walk. (Curculionidae), are eaten after first removing the head (Vara-asavapati et al 1975).  These are small greenish-bronze in color, and known as ma-lang-khom-tong or ma-lang-chang.  Children catch them by hand and eat them raw, or if many are caught they are fried with a little salt.

 

Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)

Cybister limbatus Fabr., adult

Cybister (= Cybis?) sp., adult

Cybister tripunctatus (author?) (= tripuncta), larva, adult

 

            Only one dytiscid, Cybister limbatus F. (Lao name:  Mang mee-eng), is reported by Bristowe (1932).  These black shiny water beetles are caught in nets (probably primarily during fishing) and roasted.

            Graves and Launois (1973, p. 116) mention that in Bangkok's countless open-air stalls, "Vendors offer an enormous variety of foods, from rich confections and exotic fruits to a spicy paste made from mashed water beetles."

            Vara-asavapati et al (1975) report the food use of water beetles representing three families.  Villagers catch the "true water beetle," Cybister tripunctatus (Dytiscidae) (known as ma-langtap-tao or duang-ding) and its nymph (known as "mang-eed") in ponds, swamps, small rivers and rice paddies (p. 27).  Bamboo nets or fishing nets are used to catch the beetles.  The beetles and their nymphs are in season from the rainy season to winter, and the "mang-eed" are found in the markets everyday during the rainy season.  "Mang-eed" is prepared in the same way as prawns; the wings of the adult beetles are removed before they are eaten.

            Sungpuog and Puwastien (1983) state that the true water beetle, Cybister limbatus Fabr., known as ma-lang-tap-tao, is pounded into paste, roasted on a spit, pan roasted.  See Thailand Table 1 for seasonal availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses.  Cybis sp. (predaceous diving beetle) adult:  Malaeng Tub Tow; 5 baht/3 scoops or 1 baht/2 scoops [both prices listed by authors]; rainy season; steamed (Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).

            Jonjuapsong (1996