Chapter
24
Taxa and life stages consumed
Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)
Buprestis sp., adult
Chrysobothris femorata (author?),
larva, adult
Sternocera aequisignata Saund. (= equisignata and acquisignata), adult
Sternocera sp., adult
Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)
Apriona germari Hope, larva, adult
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Hypidisa talaca Walk., adult
Hypomeces squamosus (Fabr.),
adult
Rhynchophorus schah Fabr.,
larva, adult
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister limbatus Fabr.,
adult
Cybister (= Cybis?) sp., adult
Cybister tripunctatus (author?)
(= tripuncta), larva, adult
Haliplidae (crawling water beetles)
Haliplid
sp., adult
Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Hydrous sp., adult
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Adoretus
compressus Web., adult
Adoretus convexus Burm.,
adult
Anomala antiqua Gyll.), adult
Apogonia spp.
Copris spp., adults
Exopotus sp., adult
Helicopris sp., adult
Holotrichia sp., adult
Lepidiota sp., larva, adult
Lepidiota stigma (Fabr.),
larva, adult
Leucopholis (= Leucophosis?) sp., adult
Onitis sp., adult
Onitis virens Lansb., adult
Onthophagous sp., adult
Oryctes rhinoceros (Linn.),
larva, pupa, adult
Psilophosis sp., adult
Xylotrupes Gideon Linn.,
larva, adult
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
Lethocerus (= Belostoma) indicus Lep. &
Serv., adult
Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
Sphaerodema molestum (author?),
adult
Sphaerodema rustica Fabr.,
adult
Nepidae (water scorpions)
Laccotrephes grisea Guer.,
adult
Nepa sp., adult
Notonectidae (back swimmers)
Notonecta undulata (author?)
(? = Notonita ?;=Notonica intermerata),
adult
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Tesseratoma (= Teeseratama) javanica Thunb.,
nymph, adult
Tesseratoma papillosa Drury,
adult
Cicadidae (cicadas, psyllids, etc.)
Cosmopsatria sp., adult
Dundulia entemerata Walk. (? = Dandubia, ?;= Dundubia, ?; = Dunduebia intermerata),
adult
Dundubia sp., adult
Magicicada spp., adults
Rihana sp., adult
Kerridae (lac scales)
Kerria (= Laccifer) lacca Kerr.
Anthophoridae (carpenter bees)
Xylocopa confusa Perez,
adult
Xylocopa latipes Dr., adult
Apidae (honey bees)
Apis dorsata Fabr., larva, pupa
Apis florae Fabr., larva, comb/all stages
Apis indica (author?), larva, pupa
Apis sp., larva, pupa, comb/larva
Formicidae (ants)
Crematogaster sp., larva
Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.), all
stages
Halictidae (halictids)
Nomia sp., larva, pupa
Vespidae (wasps, hornets)
Eumenes petiolata Fabr.,
larva
Vespa cincta Fabr., larva, adult
Vespa sp., larva
Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar,
winged adult
Termes flavicole (author?),
winged adult
Bombycidae (silkworm moths)
Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa
Cossidae (carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Xyleutes leuconotus (author?),
larva
Zeuzera coffeae (author?), larva
Pyralidae (snout and grass moths)
Pyralid
sp.
Family uncertain
Hierdula sp., eggs, adults
Tenodera sinensis (author?)
Anax (=Anaz) guttatus Burm., adult
Aeschnidae spp., nymphs
Libellulidae (common skimmers)
Libellula (= Libella?; = Ubellela?) pulchella Drury
Libellulidae spp., nymphs
Macromiidae (belted skimmers, river skimmers)
Macromia sp., nymph
Epophtholmia vittigera (author?), nymph
Rhyothemis sp., nymph
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Aelopus tamulus Fabr.
Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (author?), adult
Locusta migratoria Linn.
Locusta (= Locustra?) sp., adult
Oxya japonica japonica (author?)
Patanga succincta (author?)
Blattidae (roaches)
Blatta orientalis Linn., egg, adult
Stylophyga rhombifolia Stoll., egg adult
Gryllidae (crickets)
Brachytrupes (= Brachytrypes) portentosus Licht., adult
Brachytrupes sp.
Gryllus testaceous Walck.
Liogryllus bimaculatus De Geer (= Gryllus?; = Acheta bimaculata?; = G. bimaculata?; =
G. bimarculata?)
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa africana
Beauv., adult
Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers)
Scudderia sp., adult
Family uncertain
Eurycnema versirubra Serville,
frass
Bristowe (1932) published the first definitive paper
on entomophagy in Thailand. Bristowe
found that Thai and Lao peasants ate similar diets, consisting of rice with
fish supplying the main protein constituent, but that the Lao, in addition, ate
considerable numbers of insects, each in its particular season. Although the Laos are concentrated mainly in
northern and eastern Thailand, their choice of insects and order of preference
were found to be remarkably consistent throughout the country, the most popular
being the giant waterbug, dung beetles and their larvae, grasshoppers and the
larvae of Hymenoptera, beetles and moths.
Up to 4d. may be paid for
a single Helicopris dung beetle
or giant water-bug. Exceptions included
dragonflies and their nymphs which are eaten only in the Ubon area and at Hua
Hin, respectively, and cockroaches which are eaten at Korat and Hua Hin, but
said in other areas to "stink."
Cockroach eggs, however, are fried and eaten by children in all
districts. Some species, such as the
cicada, Dundubia intemerata, are
restricted in range and therefore not known in other districts. Bristowe was impressed by the Lao knowledge
of insect life-histories.
Bristowe states that, "As regards their reasons for
eating insects, I found that without question the Laos like them. Some fetch high prices and the capture of
others is fraught with considerable risk."
Bristowe sampled most of the insects eaten by the Laos and "found
none of them distasteful and a few quite palatable, notably the giant
water-bug." Dung beetles were
"by no means unpleasant." Salt
is usually added to the insects, or sometimes chilli or the leaves of scented
herbs, and sometimes they are eaten with rice or added to sauces or curry. Bristowe likened the flavor of termites,
cicadas and crickets to that of lettuce.
Thais look askance at the Lao because of their
insect-eating habits, particularly their liking for dung beetles and their
larvae. The Thais themselves eat certain
kinds of insects, however, although not making such a general practice of
it. Bristowe states: "Giant
water-bugs are added to royal sauces, Duang grubs (Zeuzera coffeae) were much prized by the late king, and
certain kinds of ant and ant grub are pickled for the consumption of good
family Siamese in Bangkok. Wasp grubs
and honey, locusts, crickets and even big Mygalomorph spiders are occasionally
eaten by some of the Siamese peasants."
Bristowe stated that his list of the insects eaten was
probably far from complete, but he was confident that the major species were
included. His findings are further
reported below under the appropriate orders and families. Bristowe concluded his extremely valuable
paper by listing some medicinal uses of insects in Thailand.
Bristowe (1953) rehashes his previous paper (1932)
without adding any new information. Nakao (1964;
vide Hirashima et al 1979) reported observations on human consumption of
insects in Thailand [this paper, in Japanese, has not yet been seen].
Mungkorndin (1981; vide Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984)
discusses the edible plants and animals throughout the whole of Thailand. [This paper has not yet been seen.]
In an important paper, Sungpuag
and Puwastien (1983) provided the results of proximate,
mineral and vitamin analyses on 12 species of insects that are consumed in the
north and northeast of Thailand where insect consumption is common
practice. Insects are the common source
of protein and energy for the rural farmers of the region and therefore
nutritionally important according to the authors, who also note that, despite
this, there is no information on nutritive values of insects in the latest
"Nutrient Composition Table of Thai Foods," published by the
Nutrition Division, Department of Health.
The authors note that their analyses included only some
of the species that are consumed in northeast Thailand. The insects for analysis were taken live (the
majority of samples) by people in the villages or bought at markets in Ubon and
Mahasarakam provinces. The insects were
killed in boiling water and only the edible parts were retained. They were then sundried, baked at 50oC
and ground to a powder. In a food
consumption survey conducted during the insect consumption season in Ubon in
the villages where samples were collected, it was found that 20-60 g of insects
are consumed per day, providing 1-5 g of protein, 1-50 g of fat, 1-5 g of
carbohydrate and 10-350 kcal of energy.
The eight-month season of edible insect availability and consumption
found by Sungpuag and Puwastien is shown in Thailand Table 1 (see authors'
Table 1).
Although Sungpuag and Puwastien conducted analyses on
baked and dried samples, the nutrient compositions are reported in grams or
milligrams per 100 grams of live-weight (Thailand Tables 2 and 3; see authors'
Tables 2 and 3). Some vitamins were lost
in the drying process, thus are underestimated in the tabular data. From the data, the authors conclude that the
insects are a good source of protein and high in several minerals (calcium, phosphorus,
sodium and potassium), but low in iron.
Vitamin B2 and niacin were higher than vitamin B1. The authors conclude that there are enough
nutrients in insects that they should be recommended to the rural people for
consumption and information should be provided that would make their use as
food as efficient as possible. Restraint
should be exercised in the use of pesticides so that insects remain available
as a food source. Finally, more studies
should be conducted on the nutritive value of insects, especially on their
amino acid content.
Sungpuag and Puwastien briefly discussed in tabular form
the methods by which the various species are prepared for consumption. These are included below under the
appropriate orders and families.
In an excellent paper, accompanied by numerous
black-and-white photographs, Watanabe
and Satrawaha (1984) provide data on 15 species of insects
found in the public market in Khon Kaen in northeastern Thailand. The authors state that the insects are an
important protein source for the people in this region, and that they are
"saleable in urban areas, being quality food available in
quantity." They also say, "To
ensure a continued supply, however, collection methods will need to be improved
and rearing methods established."
In addition to the insects discussed, the authors note that insects are
also sold unsorted in bulk.
Insects reported by Watanabe and Satrawaha are discussed
below under the appropriate orders and families. Relative to seasonal availability of the insect
foods they discuss, the rainy season extends from May to October, the end of
the rainy season refers to September-October, and the dry season extends from
February to April. Prices are presumably
those during the period 1979-1981.
In a study of natural food sources occuring in
northeastern Thailand during the rainy season, Somnasang et al (1984,
pp. 59-60) report all of the species reported earlier by Sungpuag and
Puwastien, plus the following:
Coleoptera, Chrysobothris femorata
(Buprestidae); Homoptera, Magicicada
spp. (Cicadidae); Isoptera, Reticulitermes
flavipes (Kollar); and Odonata, Ubellula
pulchella. The authors say,
in an introductory summation, that protein supplies are confined to animals and
insects while vegetables are the source of minerals and vitamins. In years of abundant rainfall, the surplus of
unconventional foods gathered from nature added to family income apart from the
proportions consumed daily. The natural
foods are gathered especially from paddy fields, from upland and forested
areas, and from natural ponds and streams.
Somnasang et al state (p. 12, translation): "Insects are a very important source of
protein for villagers in the Northeast, especially during the time that fish,
prawn, and frogs are difficult to find.
Besides providing protein insects also provide vitamins and
minerals. It is safe to eat the insects
because there is no pesticide. Most of
the time people eat the insects cooked.
Villagers said that nowadays insects are difficult to find." In one village in Chaiyapoom Province,
villagers said that there are not many insects now because there are not many
trees in the woods.
The authors mention that insects found in the rice
paddies during the rainy season are water bugs, grasshoppers, true water
beetles, winged termites, crickets and mole crickets (p. 26). Insects found in the woods and hills include
the June beetles, crickets, true water beetles, cicadas, metallic wood-borers,
and short-tailed crickets (p. 28).
Insects found in water are the dragonfly naiads, true water beetles, and
crickets (p. 29). While most insects are
more plentiful when there have been good rains, there are more grasshoppers
when it is dry (p. 8).
The giant water bugs are collected using nets or at
lights. The whole bug except the wings
is eaten. It is grilled and then put in
sauce to lend the desired odor or essence.
Female water bugs are sold two for one baht in the market, while male
bugs, which have more of the preferred odor, sell for two baht each (p.
32). Grasshoppers and true water beetles
are wrapped in banana leaf and grilled to put in soup. Grasshoppers are sold for one baht per
bag. Winged termites are grilled or
fried.
Somnasang et al (1985a) report that fewer insect foods are
available during the cool season than during the rainy season in northeast
Thailand (p. 29). Crickets are an
exception, more being found in the cool season when as many as 10 may be
collected from one cricket hole. Insects
collected during the cool season include (p. 39): Coleoptera, Cybister
limbatus (Dytiscidae); Onitis
spp. and Copris spp.
(Scarabaeidae); Hemiptera, Notonita undurata
(Notonectidae); Homoptera, Magicicada
spp. (Cicadidae); Odonata, Libellula
pulchella; Orthoptera, Gryllus
bimarculatus (Gryllidae), and Gryllotalpa
africana (Gryllotalpidae); and an insect called mang-kha-noon. Cicadas are in season in February. They are fried and ground to powder in the
same way as water bugs are prepared. A
few other remarks are made regarding insect food preparation or seasonal abundance
(pp. 19-22), but the information has been noted previously. Somnasang et al state that the main sources
of food for family consumption in the cool season are crops and vegetables, and
for meat, chicken. The forest remains a
source of mushrooms at the onset of the cool season (November). Fish is the food most commonly purchased.
Somnasang et al (1985b) repeat information provided in the
earlier report by this group (Somnasang et al 1984). Somnasang
et al (1986) report several insects among the natural
food resources in northeast Thailand villages during the summer season. These include the buffalo dung beetles, Onitis spp. and Copris
spp.; winged termites of Reticulitermes
flavipes; the giant water-bug, Lethocerus
indicus; the dragonfly naiad, Ubellula
pulchella (known as noey); and red ant's eggs. The authors point out that summer natural
food sources are limited compared to those in the rainy and cool seasons. Less wood is needed for fuel and more people
are employed in the summer, so fewer trips are made to the forest.
The Ministry of Public
Health (1987) provided
an attractive booklet with colored illustrations called the "Manual for
Using Food which Provides High Protein and Fat in Rural Areas." It is intended for selecting foods for malnourished
infants and pre-school children. The
Nutrition Division, based on research, developed nine "supplementary
food" formulas that can be used to supplement the food of infants age 3
months and older. The formulas are based
on locally produced foods; Formula 3, for example, consists of 650 g of rice,
250 g of mung bean, and 100 g of white sesame.
The protein and energy value of this formula is shown in Thailand Table
4 (MPH manual p.4) along with values given in the booklet for several insects
and selected other foods, a total of 60 foods (insect data shown on MPH pp.
14-15). The daily requirement of protein
and calories for Thai children are also shown in Table 4 (on MPH p. 16).
Gorton (1989) states:
Drought, deforestation and overpopulation have left Northeast Thailand's poorest with even less than before. Still, 'Esarn' people, attuned to the weather and soil, have adapted in their own unusual, albeit practical, way. While swarms of insects have invaded precious rice and corn fields, villagers have fought back with their own appetites, instead of the more expensive and dangerous chemicals. At the same time, villagers have been able to increase their sagging protein intake.
Gorton notes that more
than 19 varieties of insects are eaten by villagers and attributes to a leading
Thai nutritionist the statement that "Insects are becoming an increasingly
important protein supplement for the diets in the Northeast." Gorton mentions Oun Pachusoo, 40, who has a
family of four to feed. She uses an old
cloth to trap water bugs in ponds and paddies and lift them out of the
water. Selling her water bugs at the
Roi-Et open market, she estimates she earns 50 to 60 baht (U.S. $1.90 to $2.30)
a day.
According to Gorton, villagers have been able to stem the
damage to crops by "turning foe into food," a most notable example
being the grasshoppers or "flying shrimp", which feed on corn
seedlings, sugarcane, rice and banana leaves.
Government spraying programs involving "massive amounts of
chemicals" became less and less successful, while "being expensive
and hazardous to health." Villagers
sometimes ate insects dead from pesticides, and as recently as 1986, there were
stories of villagers dying or being seriously injured by chemicals ingested
along with the insects. "Large
cross-province shipments of grasshoppers killed by pesticides, then fried to a
crisp in cooking oil were a lucrative business for some."
Gorton reports that, as a result of information from news
reports and health officials, some districts and villages gave up the spraying
in favor of grasshopper catching competitions.
Health and culinary experts gave demonstrations on the best way to clean
and prepare the grasshoppers. Gorton
notes that, "Those who can catch the insects in mass quantity are able to
sell them on the village roadside or become involved with the lucrative
'export' trade to Bangkok."
Of red ant "eggs", which have long been
considered a delicacy in northeast Thailand, Gorton says: "No fine restaurant in a provincial
capital would be found without its supply of the foodstuff. The eggs are of great nutritional value
because they are often eaten raw, mixed together with ants, chillies, chopped
lemon grass, radishes and various other additives. On a good day, villagers can make a few
dollars of marketable food, though the villagers often prefer to eat them at
home as a kind of special treat for a successful walk in the wilderness."
Jonjuapsong (1996) discusses collection and preparation
methods for several of the edible insects in Thailand (see under appropriate
taxonomic groups below). He notes that children eagerly collect insects flying
around the gas-powered lanterns and consider them delicious. Insects are a good source of protein for people
in the countryside, and their taste is "not inferior to that of beef,
pork, chicken, shrimp or fish in the least; for example the flesh of praying
mantis is very similar to that of shrimp mixed with fresh mushrooms." Entomophagy also contributes to pest control,
as many of the edible species are destructive to plants. More than 50 species are eaten (roasted,
boiled, sautéed or pounded) by people from northeast Thailand, and it is part
of the culture. The tabularized nutritional values presented are those
published originally by Sungpuag and Puwastien.
Yhoung-aree and Puwastien (1997) note that, because of transportation
and other difficulties, "conventional protein" sources such as fish,
poultry, pork, beef, eggs and milk, are not reliably available in some parts of
Thailand, the north and northeast being two such regions. Insects have served since ancient times,
however, as an alternative source of protein which helps to overcome the
periodic or seasonal scarcity of the conventional sources. In addition, some insects have long been
important "cultural foods" and are widely used not only in the rural
north and northeast but throughout the country.
Two consumption patterns exist. In rural areas, insects serve as main
dishes and are eaten with staple foods such as rice, while urban dwellers
mainly use insects as snack foods, although some, such as the giant water bug,
may be used as an ingredient in certain popular dishes.
To investigate consumption patterns in rural areas,
Yhoung-aree and Puwastien conducted four dietary assessments representing
different seasons among 140 school-aged children in northeast Thailand. The first assessment,
in October (the transition month between the rainy and cool-dry seasons)
revealed that 15% of the children ate insects and averaged 15
g/person/meal. In the second assessment, in December (the dry
cool-season [and a period of low insect availability]), 2% ate insects and
averaged 26 g/person/meal. In the third
period, in February-March (late cool-dry season), 16% ate insects with an
average consumption of 16 g/person/meal. In the fourth assessment, April to
early May (the hot-dry season [and the period of greatest insect
availability]), 32% of respondents consumed insect dishes and averaged 26
g/person/meal. Although volume of
consumption was relatively low, the authors believe these data confirm that
insects play a substantial role in household food security, "particularly
since among the rural poor, insects can feed a sizable family at very little
(if any) monetary cost."
In urban areas, although many are "squeamish"
about eating them, insects are purchased and well-accepted by people of various
economic levels and some insects, such as wasps, bamboo caterpillars, crickets,
locusts and others, are sold as delicacies in the finest restaurants and food shops. The authors state that urbanites who like
insect dishes may be mainly rural insect eaters who have migrated to the
city. The authors mention also that the
Thai government has played a role in promoting insect consumption, especially
relative to locust plagues, and, as a result fried locusts and locust fritters
appeared widely in city markets. Some
people became wary, however, following reports that people had died after
eating insects, possibly caused by insecticide contamination.
According to Yhoung-aree and Puwastien, cooking methods
for insects are not different from those used for other foods, and they
indicate which methods are most popular for the different insect groups. For example, they say, relative to frying/frittering:
Deep-frying is the main technique
used to prepare bamboo caterpillars. This dish is delicious and tastes much
like french fries. Hence, it becomes a
popular dish even with urban dwellers of all economic classes. However the price
is quite expensive compared to other insects (and some meat sources), reaching
up to 150-200 Baht per kilogram of cooked bamboo caterpillars (Note: approx. 24
Baht = 1 US$). Deep frying is also used for crickets, locusts, and beetles.
Fried locusts or grasshoppers, known as "sky prawns," are a popular
and expensive dish in urban areas as well as rural ones. Cricket and locust fritters are also one of
the most common dishes sold in urban restaurants and as street foods in large
markets such as the weekend market in Bangkok, the night market in the Patpong
area, large markets in Chiangmai and so on.
These dishes are normally served as a relish.
According to the authors, roasting is the most common method of cooking for all
insects except bees and wasps which are automatically smoked during their collection. Baking/barbecuing may be used to cook
crickets and giant water bugs. All kinds
of insects, especially locusts, wasps, ant eggs and beetles, are suitable for
preparing spicy soup/curry, and
the authors mention that many kinds of insects are suitable for preparation as homoke, which entails mixing them with
chilli-based ingredients, and wrapping the mixture in a banana leaf which is
then either baked or steamed, resulting in a red custard-like dish. Minced insects (crickets, beetles, cicadas
and giant water bugs are suitable) may be prepared as jaew (spicy chilli paste) or pone (watery chilli sauce), foods which
are commonly eaten by indigenous people.
Several less commonly used methods are mentioned, such as dipping the
insects in eggs and frying or adding them as part of scrambled eggs or
omelettes.
Noting that the protein content of conventional animal
sources ranges from 3.5 g/100 g in milk to 18-20 g/100 g in meat, and comparing
this to data from an earlier study on nutrient content of insects (see Thailand
Tables 2 and 3), the authors consider insects to be quantitatively good sources
of protein, but low in fat, except for young female red ants. They cite earlier studies on amino acid
scores showing insects' protein quality ranging from 48 to 80% of the FAO/WHO
reference protein. They note, from data
on bamboo caterpillars, that frying results in a marked increase in protein and
energy content. And, as shown in
Thailand Table 3, insects are also good sources of certain minerals and vitamins,
especially phosphorus, potassium, iron, riboflavin and niacin.
Yhoung-aree and Puwastien conclude by saying that
although insects are not part of the staple diet of urbanites, they are
significant sources of protein for rural inhabitants. Unfortunately, rapidly changing
socio-economic factors such as people seeking off-farm employment and
consequent reduction in rural collectors and consumers and increasing
environmental degradation may reduce the availability and consumption of
insects. In the immediate future,
however, because of their cheap availability and marketability, they should
continue to play an important role in household food security.
Coleoptera
Buprestidae (metallic woodborers)
Buprestis sp., adult
Chrysobothris
femorata (author?), larva, adult
Sternocera
aequisignata Saund. (= equisignata and acquisignata),
adult
Sternocera
sp.,
adult
The woodboring buprestid, Sternocera equisignata Saund. (Lao name: Mang Khup; Thai name: Mang Thup), is sought not only by the Laos
for food but by the Chinese for decorative purposes, the metallic green and
gold elytra being used in clothes, jewelry and ornaments (Bristowe 1932). The Chinese breed them for this purpose, and
in Bangkok they sell for 1 satang or approximately 1/4d. each.
They are picked off of shrubs by the Laos who roast them and squeeze out
the feces before eating them.
Vara-asavapati et al (1975, pp. 13-50) discuss numerous insects
used as food in northeast Thailand.
Included among the Coleoptera are more than a dozen species of beetles
representing seven families. In the
family Buprestidae, the metallic woodborers, two species, Buprestis sp. and Sternocera aequisignata, are consumed, in
the adult stage (p. 42). They are known
as ma-langtap or ma-lang khap. They feed
on tree leaves and are easily collected by shaking the trees; they do not fly
away, but fall to the ground and feign death.
They are fried and the head, wings and legs are removed before they are
eaten.
Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) summarize the Sternocera
sp. (metallic wood borer) adult as follows:
Malaeng Tub; 1 baht/2 adults; end of rainy season; live. The adults of Buprestis sp. and S.
aequisignata feed on the leaves of tamarind trees, according to Jonjuapsong (1996), who also mentions the ease of collecting them by
shaking the branches because they do not try to escape when they fall to the
ground. They are prepared by roasting or
frying without oil, then removing the head, wings and legs.
See also Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1984) in the
Introduction, and Ngamsomgsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Apriona
germari Hope, larva, adult
Among the beetles, Bristowe
(1932) was unable to determine the
specific identity of the larvae of a number of longicorns (Cerambycidae) and
members of other families that are eaten by the Lao. The larvae, extracted from wood, are roasted.
Among the Cerambycidae or long-horned beetles, both the
larvae and adults of Apriona germari
Hope (known as ma-lang-kok or duang-nuatyao) are eaten (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 43). This is a large species, the adults measuring
3-5 cm with the female the larger, and the larvae measuring 5-6 cm in
length. It is a serious pest of mulberry
and kapok trees among others. Eggs are
laid from May to July and the life cycle takes about one year with 9-10 months
in the larval stage. The adults are
caught by hand, and the wings, head and legs are removed before they are
grilled or fried. The larvae, and
sometimes the pupae, are fried or cooked in banana leaves. When fried, larvae, pupae and adults are
fried without oil (Jonjuapsong 1996).
See also Bristowe (1932) in the Introduction.
Curculionidae
(weevils, snout beetles)
Hypodisa
talaca Walk., adult
Hypomeces
squamosus (Fabr.), adult
Rhynchophorus
schah Fabr., larva, adult
Both the larvae and adults of the large curculionid
weevil, Rhynchophorus schah F.,
are sought for food (Bristow 1932). The larvae are extracted from coconut palms,
and roasted.
Adults of two species of snout beetles, Hypomeces squamosus and Hypodisa talaca Walk. (Curculionidae), are
eaten after first removing the head (Vara-asavapati
et al 1975). These are small
greenish-bronze in color, and known as ma-lang-khom-tong or ma-lang-chang. Children catch them by hand and eat them raw,
or if many are caught they are fried with a little salt.
Dytiscidae
(predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister
limbatus Fabr., adult
Cybister
(=
Cybis?) sp., adult
Cybister
tripunctatus (author?) (= tripuncta), larva, adult
Only one dytiscid, Cybister
limbatus F. (Lao name: Mang
mee-eng), is reported by Bristowe
(1932). These black shiny water beetles are caught in
nets (probably primarily during fishing) and roasted.
Graves and Launois (1973,
p. 116) mention that in Bangkok's countless open-air stalls, "Vendors
offer an enormous variety of foods, from rich confections and exotic fruits to
a spicy paste made from mashed water beetles."
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) report the food use of water beetles
representing three families. Villagers
catch the "true water beetle," Cybister
tripunctatus (Dytiscidae) (known as ma-langtap-tao or duang-ding)
and its nymph (known as "mang-eed") in ponds, swamps, small rivers
and rice paddies (p. 27). Bamboo nets or
fishing nets are used to catch the beetles.
The beetles and their nymphs are in season from the rainy season to
winter, and the "mang-eed" are found in the markets everyday during
the rainy season. "Mang-eed"
is prepared in the same way as prawns; the wings of the adult beetles are
removed before they are eaten.
Sungpuog and Puwastien (1983) state that the true water beetle, Cybister limbatus Fabr., known as
ma-lang-tap-tao, is pounded into paste, roasted on a spit, pan roasted. See Thailand Table 1 for seasonal
availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses. Cybis
sp. (predaceous diving beetle) adult:
Malaeng Tub Tow; 5 baht/3 scoops or 1 baht/2 scoops [both prices listed
by authors]; rainy season; steamed (Watanabe
and Satrawaha 1984).
Jonjuapsong (1996) states that these beetles, Cybister tripuncta, the "true water
beetle," are "found in ponds, swamps and streams everywhere,"
and "are abundant from the rainy season until the cold season." They can be pounded and put in chili paste to
be eaten with shrimp and other aquatic animals or fried without oil or put in
stews, after first removing the wings.
See also Somnasang et al (1984, 1985a) in the
Introduction.
Haliplidae
(crawling water beetles)
An unidentified species of "crawling water
beetle" (Haliplidae), known as ma-lang-khao-san or duang-nam, is caught
and prepared in the same way as the other water beetles (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 45). It is of medium size and is attracted to
lights at night.
Hydrophilidae
(water scavenger beetles)
Hydrous sp., adult
Adults of a Hydrous
sp. (Hydrophilidae), known as ma-lang-niang, occur in the same types of habitat
as the Cybister beetles, and are
caught and prepared in the same way as the latter (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 29)
Hydrous sp.
(scavenger beetle [aquatic]) adult: Malaeng
Nian; price same as Cybis sp. and
often mixed with Cybis; steamed (Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Adoretus
compressus Web., adult
Adoretus
convexus Burm., adult
Anomala
antiqua (Gyll.), adult
Apogonia
spp.
Copris spp., adults
Exopotus sp., adult
Helicopris sp., adult
Holotrichia sp., adult
Lepidiota sp., larva,
adult
Lepidiota
stigma (Fabr.), larva, adult
Leucopholis (= Leucophosis?) sp., adult
Onitis sp., adult
Onitis
virens Lansb., adult
Onthophagous sp., adult
Oryctes
rhinoceros (Linn.), larva, pupa, adult
Psilophosis sp., adult
Xylotrupes
gideon Linn., larva, adult
Annandale (1900, pp. 859-861) mentioned four species
of melolonthid beetles, Lepidiota stigma,
another species of Lepidiota, and
two species of Leucopholis, which
are sold in the markets of Patalung.
Both the adults and their larvae, which are found in the soil or under
fallen trees, are eaten. They, like the
cicada, are either boiled or fried in coconut oil.
Numerous species of scarabaeid beetles are discussed by Bristowe (1932). The small rose beetles, Adoretus compressus Web. and A. convexus Burm., known by the Lao as
Mang ee noon, are very popular throughout the Ubon circle but are not found in
the markets. They are caught at night
when they swarm at lights; they are roasted and the wing covers removed. Larvae, pupae and adults of Oryctes rhinoceros L. (Lao name for
larva: Mangh bough; adult: Mang kwang) are searched for in cow and
buffalo dung, especially in sheds that have housed either. The beetles, about 1 1/3 in. long, are
usually roasted, but sometimes fried.
They are also used in curries or eaten alone, after the elytra and other
hard parts are removed. The larvae and
pupae are soaked in coconut oil for 15 min. before roasting. The flavor is quite pleasant according to
Bristowe, who states, "The beetles and grubs are highly prized, and it is
due to their taste for these particular insects that the Laos rank so low in
the Siamese estimation." Both
adults and larvae of Xylotrupes gideon
L. are eaten, but there is not as much enthusiasm for this species as for O. rhinoceros. The Lao name for it is Mang kwang, the same
as for O. rhinoceros. Males of X.
gideon are pitted against each other in beetle fights, but, says
Bristowe, so much money changed hands that a law prohibiting beetle fights was
passed. A Helicopris species, possibly undescribed, but over two
inches in length and proportionately broad, is found in northern Thailand where
it is used both as food and medicine.
These beetles were very expensive, fetching as much as 20 satangs (about
4d.) in Lampang, and Bristowe
suggests that "a dung beetle farm might be a most profitable
enterprise!" The Lao name is Mang
chew chee. The beetle is roasted,
pounded up and added to curry. Three
other species of scarabaeids are eaten by the Lao. One is Onitis
virens Lansb. (also known as Mang chew chee), which occurs in
abundance in cattle dung, and is roasted with salt. The others are Lepidiota stigma F. (known as Mang ee noon, a name which at
least some Lao seem to apply to all chafers and rose beetles) and a Leucopholis species, both of which are
apparently eaten widely in northern and eastern Thailand.
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) describe the use of species in five
genera of the beetle family Scarabaeidae.
The June beetle complex includes Holotrichia
sp., Psilophosis sp., Leucophosis sp., and Exopotus sp. (p. 13). Common names are grey June beetle,
white-stomach June beetle, red June beetle and green June beetle, and they are
known collectively as ma-lang-kee-noon.
The white-stomach June beetle is found in all markets in April and
May. It is about 1.5-2.0 cm in length;
the red and the grey June beetles are somewhat larger, about 3-4 cm long. The beetles feed at night on the young leaves
of trees such as tamarind, zizyphus, mango and custard apple. During the day, they hide underground which
is also where the larvae or "white grubs" develop. The beetles are collected at night using a
lantern or flashlight and a bamboo stick about 1.5 m long. The bamboo is hollowed out except at one
end. When beetles are found, using the
light, the stick is positioned below, and the beetles either fall into the open
end or fly to the light. Sometimes a mat
is placed under a tree and when it is shaken the beetles either fall to the
ground and feign death or fly to the light.
Captured beetles are placed in a bucket of water or in a plastic
bag. The authors note that some villagers
are expert at knowing which trees have the most beetles. Sometimes a shovel is used to dig the beetles
from the ground during the daytime. For
eating, the beetles are fried and then the wings are removed. Or, sometimes they are ground to make a spicy
sauce, or put into bamboo shoot soup or red ant egg soup, both of which are considered
as "very good."
Buffalo dung beetles of the genus Copris (several species), about 1.0-1.5 cm
in length, are active at night, and are collected from animal dung piles early
in the morning, using a shovel and a bucket of water (Vara-asavapati et al, p.
31). In some villages, signs are placed
on certain dung piles to indicate that they are already
"reserved." After collection
the beetles are left overnight in the bucket of water to rid themselves of the
ingested dung. They are also soaked in
water for two or three hours before cooking.
The beetles sold in markets are cooked with a little salt. Some people eat the beetles whole while
others remove the wings first. They are
prepared in the same way as June beetles.
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the June beetle, Anomala antigua Gyll., known as ma-lang-gi-noon, is pounded
into paste, pan-roasted, raw (chopped and seasoned) and buffalo dung beetles, Copris sp. and Onitis sp., known as malang-gudjee, are pounded into paste,
deep-fried, pan roasted. See Thailand
Table 1 for seasonal availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses.
Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) summarize several scarabaeids as follows:
Copris sp. and Onthophagous sp. (dung beetles) adult;
Kood Chi (Good Gi); 5 baht/5 small scoops; rainy season; steamed. Holotrichia
sp. and Exopotus sp.
(June beetle or May beetle) adult:
Malaeng Kinoon Daeng and Malaeng Kinoon Mone, respectively; Daeng has
metallic-colored elytra, Mone has dark elytra; 1 baht/scoop; rainy season; steamed. Xylotrupes
gideon (Hercules beetle) adult:
Malaeng Krarm or Duang Ma Prao; 1 baht/2 adults; end of rainy season;
live. Females are preferred because they
are not pets, but food.
Xylotrupes gideon has been
reported damaging the bark of apple (Malus
pumila) and oriental pear (Pyrus
lindeyi) trees in Thailand (Sirinthip
and Black 1987). Attacks begin with the first rains and continue
through August. The Lahu people consider
X. gideon a delicacy to be eaten
with chili sauce, and, as a first step in limiting tree damage, they were
encouraged to search their orchards early in the morning for the beetles.
Copris dung
beetles are soaked in water for 2-3 hours to clean them, then fried without oil
with a little salt or added to other dishes along with June beetles (Jonjuapsong 1996). The popular way to prepare June beetles (Holotrichia and Leucophosis) is to fry them without oil, then remove the
wings and eat them with chili paste, or to eat them in bamboo shoot stew
("gaeng noremai") or in stew ("gaeng pa") mixed with red
ant eggs.
See Ministry of Public
Health (1987) in the
Introduction and Table 4 for proximate analyses in relation to nutritive
requirements of Thai children. See also
Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1985a, 1986) in the Introduction, and
Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
(giant water bugs)
Lethocerus (= Belostoma) indicus Lep. & Serv., adult
Four species of hemipterans were reported by Bristowe (1932),
one being the well-known giant water-bug, Lethocerus
(= Belostoma) indicus Lep. & Serv., which is about
two inches long and preys on large insects, frogs and fish. It is caught in water nets. Bristowe states that, "It is a great
delicacy which is shared by Laos and Siamese alike; it reaches the tables of
princes in Bangkok." The usual
methods of preparing it are described as follows: "1.
Steam thoroughly and then soak in shrimp sauce. The insect is then served up and picked to
pieces, each piece yielding a little meat from its inner side. The flavour is strong and reminiscent of
Gorgonzola cheese. 2. After cooking, pound it up and use it for
flavouring sauces or curries. A popular
sauce called Namphla is made by mixing shrimps, lime juice, garlic, and pepper
and then adding Mang daar [Mang daar nah is the Lao name] to finish up
with. Vegetables are dipped into this
sauce." The price in Bangkok varies
according to season from 5 to 20 satangs each (1d. to 4d.). In the cold season, from December to
February, it is unobtainable. Bristowe
suggests that, at these prices, it might be worth breeding Lethocerus, like Helicopris, for the market.
Jolivet (1971) states that the giant waterbug, Lethocerus indicus, is made into a
much-prized sauce to accompany meat and fish, particularly in the northern
region of Chieng Mai. The male Lethocerus secretes a fragrant liquid from
two abdominal glands, and it is this liquid according to Jolivet that is used
to flavor sauces. The males with this
penetrating odor sell for 1 baht at the Chieng Mai and Bangkok markets, while
the females fetch only 50 satangs.
Jolivet gives the details for preparing the sauce, which contains the
following ingredients: 1 or 2 male Lethocerus, shrimp pasta (10 g), crushed
garlic (3-5 g), lemon, soybean or fish sauce, and pepper. Of the flavor, Jolivet says (translation),
"Well, let us say that it's not bad, that one gets used to it and that
gourmets appreciate it!"
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) mention hemipterans of four families
that are used as food. The giant water bug,
Lethocerus (= Belostoma) indicus (known as ma-lang-da-na)(Belostomatidae) is consumed
in almost all parts of Thailand (p. 19).
The bugs are about three inches long, although the males are smaller and
have a stronger odor. They live in
swamps and rice paddies. Eggs are laid
on branches and grass close to the water and are cared for by the mother
bug. The authors mention the fierceness
of these insects in catching prey, other insects and larger animals such as
frogs and prawn. During the rainy season
they come out of the water and are attracted to lights, especially to blue neon
lights. One method of catching them is
to set a blue light in a field and this may yield 200 to 300 bugs per day. Fishing nets are also used to harvest them
from swamps and ponds. In the dry season
the bugs hide in tree cavities where 10 or more may be collected from a single
cavity. There are many methods of
preparation including roasting, steaming and grilling and then soaking in fish
sauce. Water bug eggs are difficult to
find, but if found are eaten raw by some people. The bugs are found widely in the markets
during the rainy season, when the price ranges from ½ to 1 baht. They are more expensive in the dry season,
costing 2 baht or more. The authors note
that artificial water bug flavoring is now produced, but people still prefer to
eat the real bugs.
Hirashima et al (1979) describe as follows the marketing of
the giant water bug in Bangkok:
Tourists
were curious to see the giant water bug, Lethocerus
indicus, which was displayed for sale at the Sunday market in
Bangkok. Shopkeepers display many of
bugs, which were boiled in hot water, in a large bamboo basket, some were
beautifully arranged in rows, for sale....We learned that the bugs are consumed
in two ways. They are eaten after fried
in oil or used as one of seasonings for a sauce which is served for fried fish,
especially the catfish. One of us tried
this dish at Chiang Mai and he liked it because of a rich taste. Shoppers were used to stick a toothpick, which
was served by the shopkeeper, in the abdomen of the bug and then smell it in
order to buy a good one. Good one means
the bug which has a stronger and better flavor.
Usually the male bug is more attractive, but the female bug is also
sold. The price was 1 baht for 1 bug in
1973, while it was 5 baht in 1977.
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the giant water bug, Lethocerus indicus Lep. & Serv., known
as mang-da-na, is pounded into paste.
See Table 1 for seasonal availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient
analyses.
Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) summarize Lethocerus
indicus, the giant water bug adult, as follows: Thai name, Malaeng Da Na (Maeng Da Na); very
popular food; 3-5 baht per male, 2 baht/female; available most of the year;
sold steamed or live. Usually used to
flavor Nam Prik Malaeng Da. The mature
eggs in the ovary are eaten during the late rainy season.
The 63-page book, Malaeng Daa Naa (Of Edible Insects) by
Chaiya Uisoognern, published by the Centre for Agricultural Texts, was reviewed
by Clutterbuck (1992) who opened by saying,
"Blissfully unaware of the revulsion experienced by those from other
cultures, Chaiya Uisoognern uses this book to tell us everything we could
possibly want to know about Thailand's favourite edible insect [the giant water
bug]." Aspects are then discussed
pertaining to biology, harvesting, market prices, recipes and other culinary
uses. The selling season for malaeng daa is usually October-March. Male malaeng
daa can be sold wholesale for Bt3-5 apiece (25 baht = US $1), while
females fetch only 50-75 satang (1 baht = 100 satang). This is because the male has the distinctive
odor.
Clutterbuck continues:
The eggs can be eaten on their own,
raw or grilled, the result `yet another form of deliciousness.' The rather tasteless female is best deep
fried in batter and dipped in nam jim. Alternately she can be stuffed in pork and
fried, or she can make a nice roast malaeng
daa curry. The male, after a
grilling to increase his flavour and removing his wings, is best crushed in a
mortar to make nam phrik chili
sauce. Chaiya recommends adding fish,
prawn sauce (kapi), the aubergine
relative makheua or the fermented
plaa raa for 'tastiness you
shouldn't tell anybody' about (aroi yaa bork
khrai).
Clutterbuck confirms that, as a dip for grilled chicken, nam phrik malaeng daa "is indeed
tasty and distinctive." He
concludes: "For the adventurous, another world of flavour is waiting, once
they discard their conditioning, " and offers a final useful hint, "When
buying, the best way to sex a malaeng daa
(and avoid being tricked by market women) is to look for the female's
egg-laying apparatus."
Yhoung-aree and Puwastien (1997) mention that giant water bugs
"are eaten by people living all over the country." See also Bristowe (1932), Somnasang et al
(1984, 1986) and Gorton (1989) in the Introduction, and Ngamsomsuke et al
(1987) under Miscellaneous. Jonjuapsong
mentions B. indicus, but adds
nothing new to the above discussion.
Naucoridae
(creeping water bugs)
Sphaerodema
molestum (author?), adult
Sphaerodema
rustica Fabr., adult
Among hemipterans that are eaten are Sphaerodema rustica F. and S. molestum, two small greenish water-bugs
that are common in Thailand (Bristowe 1932). The Lao name for both is Mang kharn. Sticks are used to knock them from bushes in
which they rest during the day. They are
roasted in a dish and eaten with the fingers like shrimps.
Nepidae
(water scorpions)
Laccotrephes
grisea Guer., adult
Nepa sp., adult
The water scorpion, Laccotrephes
grisea Guer. (Lao name: Mang dah), is said to have a good flavor
after being toasted on a bamboo skewer (Bristowe
1932).
A species of water scorpion, Nepa sp. (known as ma-lang-see-siad or ma-lang-khan-so)
(Nepidae), is reported as food by Vara-asavapati
et al (1975, p.
36). It lives in and near ponds, wells
and rivers, and although it has fully-developed wings, it flies very
little. The bite is painful. It is often included in catches of other
aquatic insects and fish and is usually cooked along with other insects
collected from water.
Notonectidae
(back swimmers)
Notonecta
undulata (author?) (?= Notonita;
?= Notonica intermerata), adult
An aquatic bug that is used as food is the back-swimmer, Notonita undulata (known as ma-lang-hua-kwai
or muan-won)(Notonectidae)(Vara-asavapati et
al, p. 35). These are found
in ponds, swamps and rivers, and they are attracted to lights during the rainy
season and the beginning of the cool season (October-December). They are collected at neon lights at night or
with fish nets directly from the water.
They are eaten raw, stir-fried or in curry. If enough are collected they are preserved
with salt and cooked in sticky rice which is known as "jom." It can be kept for many days, and
"jom" made from back-swimmers is as famous as "jom" made
from prawn and small fish.
Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) give the following summary: Notonectidae (swimmer) adult: Malaeng Muan Won or Manghua Qai; 3 baht/small
bag or 2 baht/3 small spoonsful (usually, several other aquatic insects such as
water boatmen are intermixed); dry season?; live.
See also Somnasang et al (1985a) in the Introduction and
Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Tesseratoma (= Teeseratama) javanica Thunb., nymph, adult
Tesseratoma
papillosa Drury, adult
Both adults and nymphs of the stink bug, Tesseratoma javanica Thumb (known as
ma-lang-khang-khiaw or muan-lam-yai) (Pentatomidae) are used as food (Vara-asavapati et al, p. 50), despite the
presence of the odor gland, the secretion from which can irritate human
skin. The bugs are present during March
and April when the new leaves are on Longan trees, orange trees and
others. Trees with heavy infestations
are felled in order to collect the bugs.
They are soaked in water for 1-2 hours to rid them of the poisonous
secretion and then they are fried before consumption.
See also Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Homoptera
Cicadidae
(cicadas, psyllids, etc.)
Cosmopsatria sp., adult
Dundulia
entemerata Walk. (? = Dandubia; ? = Dundubia;
? = Dunduebia intermerata), adult
Dundubia sp., adult
Magicicada spp.,
adults
Rihana sp., adult
Annandale (1900, pp. 859-861) reported that the
cicada, Dundubia intemerata,
forms a regular article of diet among the Thai inhabitants of Patalung. He described their capture at the village of
Ban Nah as follows:
Immediately after the sun has set
several of the natives gathered in an open space, round a fire of brushwood or
a number of torches fastened to stakes stuck into the ground, and commenced to
clap their hands in unison, observing a regular time and rhythm. Very soon, if they were fortunate, the
Cicadae flew out from the undergrowth of the surrounding orchards and jungle,
and alighted on the persons of their captors, who had no difficulty in picking
off the insects with their fingers and securing them, still alive, in a fold of
their draperies. The clapping only
continued for about half an hour every evening...The voiceless females [females
don't stridulate], as might be expected, were in great preponderance over the
males among the specimens taken.
The cicadas were
collected in early April, and appeared to Annadale to be very local. According to Annandale, the cicadas have
little flavor.
Pendlebury (1923, p. 11; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 259)
apparently described the collecting of Dundubia
intemerata, similarly to the account given by Annandale. Of the homopteran, Dundubia intemerata (Lao name: Tua chuck-a-chun), Bristowe (1932)
states that it is the only species of cicada that is highly prized by the Laos,
but except in southern Thailand it is absent or rare.
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) report (p. 40) three species of
cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) that are
harvested as food, i.e., Rihana
sp., Dundulia (Dundubia?) sp., and Cosmopsatria sp. They are searched for during March and April
and three methods are used to collect them.
The most common practice makes use of a mixture of tree resin with
"nam-man-yang" which is
called "tang" and is sticky.
"Tang" is applied to the end of a small stick attached to a
long pole. When a cicada's wing is
touched by the sticky point, it cannot fly and is captured and put into a
container. A second method is to hunt
for cicadas at night. Trees are shaken
until the cicadas fall to the ground.
They will not fly at night, according to the authors, and a lantern is
used to help find them on the ground.
Another method involves the use of a fishing net although the authors do
not explain how the net is used. After
collection the wings are removed and the cicadas used to make a spicy sauce, or
they may be fried or deep-fried.
Jonjuapson also
mentions collection of cicadas (Rihana,
Dundulia and Cosmopsatria)
with rubber cement on the end of a short stick, or searching for them with a
light at night. If there are cicadas in
a tree when a lamp is held under it, a fine mist will fall which villagers call
`cicada piss.' They are easily collected
by shaking the tree as they do not try to escape at night. They are eaten fried or pounded and added to
mango chili paste.
See also Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1984,
1985a) in the Introduction, and Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Kerridae
(lac scales)
Kerria (= Laccifer) lacca
Kerr.
See Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Hymenoptera
Anthophoridae
(carpenter bees)
Xylocopa
confusa Perez, adult
Xylocopa
latipes Dr., adult
Bristowe (1932) reports that there are no
domesticated bees in Thailand, but a quantity of wild honey and wax appears in
the markets. Adults of Xylocopa confusa Perez (Lao name: Mang poo) and X. latipes Dr. are eaten by first crushing the head, pulling
off the head and wings, and eating the underside of the abdomen raw. Both of these species are considered pests,
the latter because it bores through the lead encasing cables.
Apidae
(honey bees)
Apis
dorsata Fabr., larva, pupa
Apis
florea Fabr., larva, comb/all stages
Apis
indica (author?), larva, pupa
Apis sp., larva,
pupa, comb/larva
Both the honey and grubs of Apis mellifica indica (Lao name: Mangpeung koh) are eaten (Bristowe 1932). Near Hua Hin, the nests, which are made of
mud and are about 1 foot in diameter, are taken by smoking the bees with
burning coconut fiber. The grubs, honey
and wax of a species, probably Apis dorsata
(Lao name: Mang peung), are collected in
the northern forest districts of Thailand.
The nests, which are 5-6 feet in diameter, are found high in the
branches of Ficus trees, and
there may be several nests on a single tree.
These bees sting severely. The
method of collecting, which involves prayers, ceremonies and incantations, is
described by Bristowe. Bristowe states
regarding the wax of this species:
"In the forest it fetches a price
of about 1 tical per cattie, but by the time it has passed through the
hands of several Chinese middlemen and, as often as not, been adulterated with
pumpkin juice and paraffin wax, it costs a purchaser in Bangkok no less than 5
or 6 ticals per cattie (say 7s. 2d. to 8s.
2d. per lb.)." Grubs of an Apis
species (possibly indica) are
eaten all over northern Thailand. The
Lao name is Mang non when; the Thai name is Mang non won. The nests, as large as a football, are made
of mud and cow-dung. The bees are smoked
out and the nest knocked down with a long pole.
The grubs are picked out and fried or eaten in curry. A favorite dish according to Bristowe: "In coconut milk put onion, pepper,
Takrie (a lemon grass, Cymbogon citratus)
and Bai Makrut leaves (Citrus hystrix). Wrap them in linen, steam them, and then add
them to rice."
Among Hymenoptera, Vara-asavapati
et al (1975) mention
three species of wild bees (Apidae) which are important honey producers in
Thailand (pp. 15-16). They are known as
peung and include Apis dorsata, a
very large bee that builds its hives on large trees and cliffs; A. indica which builds hives in cavities
in tree trunks; and A. florea a
smaller species that builds its hives in the woods on small tree branches and
bamboo. Honey from A. dorsata is the most expensive, but that
from A. florea is the most
commonly found in the markets. Honey is
sold the year-round, and is considered "a wonderful medicine and
dessert." People like to eat the
bee grubs uncooked, but they are also sometimes fried or put into soup.
Hirashima et al (1979) also discuss the sale of honey and
bee's wax in Chiang Mai, some of the honey, probably produced by Apis indica, being very expensive: "A bottle of honey, about 720 ml, of
good quality having beautiful color and good taste, was a little more expensive
than a bottle of the same size of Jonnie Walker Red Label, the imported Scotch
whiskey which was sold at the department store in Chiang Mai." Honey of ordinary quality was much cheaper,
about 70 baht for a 720 ml bottle. Bee's
wax sold for 42 baht per 550 grams.
Also, Apis florea comb was
seen on the Sunday market in Bangkok.
"It contained many of the larvae and pupae and also a few of adults
of florea in addition to
honey. This is also served for
dish."
Apis sp. (honey
bee) comb: Pung (Rueng Pung); 5-10 baht/comb,
depending on size and maturity of larvae; live (Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).
Yhoung-aree and Puwastien (1997) mention that, as fire and smoke are
used to drive away the adult bees during collection of the hive with its honey
and bee pupae, the pupae are automatically smoked, precooked and ready to eat
following collection, or they can be sold `ready-to-eat' in markets.
See also Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Formicidae
(ants)
Crematogaster sp., larva
Oecophylla
smaragdina (Fabr.), all stages
Cowan (1865, pp. 159-160) cited earlier references
to the consumption of a species of red ant, both adults and their pupae, the
pupae being a costly luxury that is brought to the table curried, or rolled in
green leaves, mingled with shreds or very fine slices of fat pork.
Bingham (1903, p. 311) mentions that in India, Burma
and Thailand, a paste is made of the ant, Oecophylla
smaragdina F., and eaten as a condiment with curry.
Eggs of the yellow ant, Oecophylla
smaragdina F. (Lao name: Mottdaang),
are eaten by the Thais, while the Laos eat the adult ants as well (Bristowe 1932). They are said to have sour taste. This species is abundant. The nest is built in shrubs by binding
together a number of leaves, and it may be as large as a football. The ants can bite, so the nest is collected
by bringing a jar of water underneath it and pushing it upward until the nest
is submerged. The ants from about 20
nests make a meal for a family.
According to Bristowe, an undetermined species of ant, brown and
medium-sized, is much more popular among the Thais and Laos. The nests are subterranean and as large as a
big basket. The ants, their larvae and
pupae are pickled in salt water, tamarind juice, ginger, onion, a little sugar
and the leaf of Bai Makfut (Citrus hystrix). The grubs of a species of Crematogaster (called Mott dam) are eaten
in curry in the Hua Hin district.
Brygoo (1946), cited by Bodenheimer
(1951, p. 233) mentions that ant
larvae mixed with pork ragout are much appreciated in Thailand.
According to Vara-asavapati
et al (1975), people
like all stages of the red, or yellow, ant, Oecophylla
smaragdina (Formicidae), known as mod-dang and khai-mod-dang (p.
21). The eggs, "young ants,"
and adults are eaten cooked and uncooked.
They can be made into salad, fried with eggs, or put into bamboo shoot
soup, etc. The worker ants are also
consumed by the people who like the sour taste of the formic acid. The workers build the nest in large-leafed
trees such as mango by pulling the leaves together and gluing them. Eggs are produced from February to April and
villagers sell red ants and their eggs daily during this period. When collected the nest is placed in a bucket
of water. The worker ants float while
the eggs, "young ants," and adults sink to the bottom. To remove the workers, a piece of cloth to
which they adhere is stirred through the water.
Nests in high trees are dislodged first, using a long bamboo pole.
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the red ant, Oecophylla
smaragdina Fabr., and the young female, both known as tua-peng, and
the red ant's egg known as kai-mod-dang; are in spicy salads boiled,
pan-roasted. See Table 1 for seasonal
availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses.
The 1984 edition of the "Nutrient Composition Table
of Thai Foods" (Ministry of Public
Health 1984) includes one insect, the red ant, presumably Oecophylla smaragdina. The analytical results recorded are as
follows, per 100 g of insect: kcal 493,
moisture 22%, protein 24.1 g, fat 42.2 g, carbohydrate 4.3 g, fiber 4.6 g, ash
2.8 g, calcium 40 mg, phosphorus 230 mg, iron 10.4 mg, vitamin A 710 I.U., B1
0.22 mg, B2 1.13 mg, and niacin 5.7 mg.
Oecophylla smaragdina (weaving
ant) larva, pupa: Khai Mot Daeng or Mae
Peng; 2-5 baht/2 scoops or 10 baht/one handful (prices depend on quality, being
cheaper with a higher proportion of adults); dry season; steamed (Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).
Red ants, O.
smaragdina, are popularly used to give foods a sour flavor, for
example, boiled fish, boiled chicken or shellfish (Jonjuapsong 1996). The
eggs and larvae are often eaten raw, but sometimes they are cooked and put in
Thai salad ("yam"), fried with eggs, put in bamboo shoot stew
("gaeng noremai") or curried fish wrapped in banana leaves
("hore mohk").
See Ministry of Public
Health (1987) in the
Introduction and Table 4 for proximate analyses in relation to nutritive
requirements of Thai children. See also
Bristowe (1932), Somnasang et al (1986) and Gorton (1989) in the Introduction,
Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Halictidae
(halictids)
Nomia sp., larva,
pupa
A Nomia
species is collected for its grubs as well as for the honey and wax. The Lao name is Mang mim (Bristowe 1932).
Vespidae
(wasps, hornets)
Eumenes
petiolata Fabr., larva
Vespa
cincta Fabr., larva, adult
Vespa sp., larva
Two species of wasps are used as food (Bristowe 1932). The grubs of the euminid, Eumenes petiolata F. are called Mang taan
at Hua Hin where they are fried for food.
The grubs of the hornet, Vespa cincta
F. (Lao name: Tua thor), are apparently
eaten throughout Thailand, and, at least at Hua Hin, by the Thai as well as the
Lao. According to Bristowe, the belief
that a few stings may cause death may be authentic (the Laos of northern
Thailand say that to be stung by one of these wasps makes one's hair go
white). The nests are in hollow trees
and the wasps are killed with fire and smoke.
Both the grubs and the adults are fried with a little salt, the latter
after the legs and head have been removed.
Wasp grubs (Vespidae) are eaten in the same way as bees,
being fried, or put in soup or curry, boiled or stir-fried (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 24). There are many kinds of wasps, but the kind
eaten in the northeast are hive-wasps which are called "toh-loom" (Vespa sp.). To find the nests, which are in the ground,
the authors say that people wait near ponds, and wasps that come to drink water
are followed back to the nest. Smoke is
used to deactivate the wasps so that the nest and grubs can be collected.
The main collecting method is using a quick flame to burn
down the nest (Yhoung-aree and Puwastien 1997). This leaves the wasps half-cooked and ready
to eat, or the nests can be sold `ready-to-eat' in the markets. As wasps are
very tasty and considered delicacies, they are expensive to buy in the markets,
and "many people are tempted to gather them as an income-generating
activity.
See also Bristowe (1932) in the Introduction, and
Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Isoptera
Reticulitermes
flavipes Kollar, winged adult
Termes
flavicole (author?), winged adult
Flying termites, known as Mang mauw, are captured in
large numbers when they are attracted to candles surrounded by water during
swarming periods (Bristowe 1932). They are roasted with salt. This is by no means a bad dish, according to
Bristowe, but eaten raw they are insipid.
The queen termite is also a delicacy.
In the northeast, termites of the species Termes flavicole, known as ma-lang-mao,
are collected at the beginning of the rainy season when the swarms of winged
individuals emerge to mate (Vara-asavapati et
al 1975, p. 37). They emerge
in the evening and are attracted to lights, especially neon lights. One method of collecting is to place a bucket
of water under a light. Another is to
place mosquito netting over a termite mound when emergence is expected. The de-winged termites are fried over low
heat with a little salt. According to
the authors, some people believe that a headache may result if too many are
eaten. Termites are sometimes preserved
by frying and then drying them in the sun.
Jonjuapsong adds that
the"flavor is nutty and delicious, although some people believe that if
you eat too many they can make you groggy."
See also Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1984, 1986)
in the Introduction, and Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Lepidoptera
Bristowe (1932) notes that a number of the larger
lepidopterous larvae are eaten, but they have not been reared to determine their
identity.
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) state that silk worm pupae, Bombyx mori (Bombycidae), are a popular
food and quite expensive in the markets (p. 23). They are known as dak-dae-mai. They are raised in every province in the
Northeast, but especially in Korat, Roi-et, Nakorn Panom and Ubon. Silk worm culture is
government-supported. They can be
prepared in many ways, one of which is to fry and then grind them. The ground pupae may then be included in
soup, curry, or other kinds of food. The
authors briefly describe the life cycle and also the early history of silk worm
culture.
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the silk worm pupa, Bombyx mori, known as dak-dae-mai is
pounded into paste, pan-roasted. See
Table 1 for seasonal availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient
analyses. Watanabe and Satrawaha
(1984) summarize the Bombyx mori pupa: Duck Dae Tua Mai; very popular; 5 baht/5
scoops, or 25 baht/kg; available throughout the year; sold steamed.
According to Jonjuapsong,
the pupae are mixed with salt for use in chili paste for stews and other
dishes. They are popular in the
northeast and fetch a good price when sold in the market. People in the northeast raise silkworms at
home both for consumption and small-scale silk production (Yhoung-aree and Puwastien). They are very tasty and some households earn
part of their living by selling the pupae.
Cossidae
(carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Xyleutes
leuconotus (author?), larva
Zeuzera
coffeae (author?), larva
Kerr (1931, p. 217; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p.
261) reported that the larvae of Zeuzera
coffeae, the coffee borer, are known as Duang sano and are collected for eating. The larvae tunnel in the branches of Sesbania roxburghii and various other
trees and shrubs and are specially plentiful in the Province of Aynthia. There is some trade in the larvae which are
sent down to Bangkok, alive, during September and October. They are prepared for the table by frying.
The Laos apparently extract the boring larvae of Xyleutes leuconotus from Casuarina trees. Bristowe
(1932) mentions, "His Serene
Highness Prince Sithiporn told me that his cousin, the late King of Siam, was
very fond of the caterpillar of Zeuzera
which the Siamese call Duang and which feeds on Sesbania aculeata.
The larva is roasted and eaten with salt and rice."
See Ministry of Public
Health (1987) in the
Introduction and Table 4 for proximate analyses in relation to nutritive
requirements of Thai children.
Pyralidae
(snout and grass moths)
Pyralid sp.
Jordan (1993), in a Wall Street Journal article datelined Chiang Mai, describes
the Kaithong Restaurant which touts itself as the purveyor of "authentic
jungle food." For the famished,
there's the house favorite, a "mixed jungle steak" of three meats -
cobra, python and croc - with a heap of steaming corkscrew-shaped bamboo worms
on the side. The menu also lists
mountain frog, ground lizzard and soft-shelled turtle, in curry, stewed in
lemon-grass soup or simply fried.
"Some days we get so many people, there aren't enough seats,"
says manager Sayan Uphaphar. "Most
are Americans, Europeans, Chinese and Japanese.
Only 5% are Thais." The
Thais, he said, like their cobra local-style, sizzling with garlic and pepper.
Bamboo caterpillars (scientific name not yet determined)
are called rot duan in northern
Thailand where they are found in large numbers in deep bamboo jungles (Yhoung-aree and Puwastien 1997). They feed on the inside of the bamboo stem,
and stems with caterpillars will have yellow leaves; they also make a
characteristic noise which helps hunters know where they are. A bamboo section (internode) may contain a
thousand caterpillars. The caterpillars
die quickly once the internode is opened, so collectors harvest the entire
internode. After the internode is
opened, the caterpillars are preserved by boiling them for a short time. The
caterpillars are expensive, and many native people gather and sell them as an
additional source of income (see also under these authors in the Introduction).
Mantodea
Hierodula sp.
Tenodera
sinensis (author?)
Both eggs and adults of the mantid genus, Hierodula (Lao name: Mang naap), of which there are several
species in Thailand, are eaten by the Laos at Hua Hin, and probably elsewhere (Bristowe 1932).
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) mention the mantid, Tenodera sinensis, as a food in
northeastern Thailand, where it is known as takka-tan-tam-khao (p. 49). The authors include the Mantidae as a family
of Orthoptera and they are apparently prepared and eaten in the same way as
described by the authors for grasshoppers.
See also Jonjuapsong (1996) in the Introduction.
Odonata
Aeshnidae
(darners)
Anax
(= Anaz) guttatus Burm., adult
Aeschnidae spp., nymphs
Libellulidae
(common skimmers)
Libellula
pulchella Drury (?= Libella;
?= Ubellela)
Libellulidae spp.,
nymphs
Macromiidae
(belted skimmers, river skimmers)
Macromia
sp.,
nymph
Epophtholmia
vittigera (author?), nymph
Rhyothemis sp., nymph
The dragonfly, Anaz
guttatus Burm. (adults) are eaten in the Ubon district where it is
roasted in a dish, and the nymphs of a fat-bodied species are eaten at Hua Hin
(Bristowe 1932). They are boiled and said to taste like
crayfish. Dragonflies do not appear to
be taken in other districts. Mang por
appears to be a general name for all dragonflies.
Dragonfly nymphs of three species are eaten in northeast
Thailand, Rhyothemis sp., Epophtholmia vittigera, and Macromia sp. (Vara-asavapati et al 1975, p. 33). They represent three families, the
Libellulidae, Coruliidae and Macromiidae.
Vara-asavapati et al state that the nymphs known as ma-lang-ngam are
about 1.5 cm long and are much smaller than the nymphs known as ma-lang-pong-peng
which are about 4 cm long, but the authors do not say which species is known by
which name. Both kinds are apparently
equally liked as food and both apparently are sold in the markets. The nymphs are harvested by using fishing
nets or by draining the water from swamps and ponds if they are not too
large. The bodies of water where nymphs
are found are in or near wooded areas which are the habitats of the adult
dragonflies. They are prepared fried,
boiled, stir-fried and as part of salads.
The "most famous dish," according to the authors, is spiced
nymphs with onion, garlic, lemon grass, basil and fish sauce.
Watanabe and Satrawaha (1984) summarize Aeschnidae and Libellulidae (dragonflies)
larvae: Pong Peng and Malaeng Ngum,
respectively); only large larvae are sold, 2 baht/scoop or 5 baht/3 scoops; end
of rainy season; live.
See also Bristowe (1932) and Somnasang et al (1984,
1985a, 1986) in the Introduction.
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Aelopus
tamulus Fabr.
Cyrtacanthacris
tatarica (author?), adult
Locusta
migratoria Linn.
Locusta
sp.,
adult
Locustra spp.
Oxya
japonica japonica (author?)
Patanga
succincta
Both Laos and Thais eat grasshoppers and locusts (Bristowe 1932). Species include Patanga succincta, Locusta
migratoria L., and other large short-horned grasshoppers (called
Took-ah-tanne by the Laos) which are eaten everywhere in Thailand. A much smaller species, Aeolopus tamulus F., is also eaten. They are roasted or toasted and eaten like
shrimps.
Vara-asavapati et al (1975) report that orthopterans of three
families are eaten, including many species in addition to the three they
mention specifically. Among the
Acrididae, they mention specifically only Cyrtacanthacris
tatarica, known as tak-ka-tan (p. 49). They are caught in the hands, or by using a
net, or a stick or a piece of cloth.
According to the authors they can also be attracted by lights, but this
probably refers only to the Tettigoniidae.
Before being eaten, the head is removed [and probably also the wings and
legs, although not so stated by the authors].
They can then be stir-fried, used in curry as a meat-substitute, or made
into a spicy sauce. "Deep-fried,
crispy grasshoppers are very well-liked by a lot of people" (translation).
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the big locust, Cyrtacanthacris tatarica, known as tak-ka-tan-yai, and the
small locust, Oxya japonica japonica
(Thunb.), known as tak-ka-tan-lek, are pounded into paste, pan-roasted,
deep-fried. See Table 1 for seasonal
availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses.
The November 13, 1983 edition of the National Review,
published in Bangkok, described a campaign launched by local officials in which
villagers in the Province of Prachinburi collected more than 10 tons of pest
grasshoppers for use as food. According
to Saengrungruang (1983), the campaign was launched because
control efforts had been unsuccessful.
The article stated:
Fried and crispy grasshoppers are,
according to many people, delicious snacks and many food shops in Prachinburi
and other provinces served them for their customers. For beer and whiskey drinkers, fried
grasshoppers are marvelous. Grasshoppers
have now become one of the exporting items of Prachinburi which has a long list
of orders from traders who buy them at six baht a kilo...Grasshoppers have
become a favorite dish for many people who said the cooking method is also
simple - merely taking out their wings, heads and tails and cleaning them
before throwing them into the frying pan.
Locusta sp.
(locust) adult: Tukkatan (Tucka Tan);
popular food, sometimes mixed with grasshoppers, mantises or green hoppers; 1
baht/scoop or 3 baht/100 grams; rainy season; steamed or sometimes live (Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).
In 1983, Thai farmers began collecting grasshoppers as
food as an alternative to government-sponsored insecticide spraying efforts
that were ineffective (Anon. 1992). Grasshoppers, once the scourge of Thai corn
fields have risen in price from 12 US cents per kilogram in 1983 to US $2.80
per kg in 1992. At local restaurants,
once deep fried, they cost about US $6.00 per kg. A small farmer can earn up to US $120 per
half-acre, twice as much as he can from corn.
The trade in grasshoppers now averages about US $6 million per year.
Because of the obvious benefits in containing the grasshopper
population, the Thai government has publicized a number of grasshopper
recipes.
Jonjuapsong (1996) states that there are many kinds of
grasshoppers, large and small, and Thai people from the northeast eat them
all. "Grasshoppers are prepared for
eating by roasting them over a fire or frying them without oil or adding them
to stews or in chili paste. Crispy fried
grasshoppers are sold everywhere at a relatively high price."
See Ministry of Public
Health (1987) in the
Introduction and Table 4 for proximate analyses in relation to the nutritive
requirements of Thai children. See also
Bristowe (1932), Somnasang et al (1984), Gorton (1989) and Yhoung-aree and
Puwastien (1997) in the Introduction, and Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Blattidae
(roaches)
Blatta
orientalis Linn., egg, adult
Stylophyga
rhombifolia Stoll., egg, adult
Cockroaches, Blatta
orientalis L. and the apterous Stylophyga
rhombifolia St., were collected in Bristowe's
presence at Hua Hin, and Laos in that district and in Korat will eat the
roaches, but they are not eaten in other districts. In all districts, however, children collect
their eggs for frying.
Choovivathanavanich et al (1970) make no reference to the direct
ingestion of cockroaches, but note that cockroaches provoke allergic symptoms
in susceptible individuals as a contactant, injectant, inhalant, or
ingestant. They describe their skin test
results using cockroach extracts from samples blended from several species
obtained in allergic patients' dwellings in different locations in Bangkok.
See also Bristowe (1932) in the Introduction.
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Brachytrupes
(= Brachytrypes) portentosus Licht., adult
Brachytrupes sp.
Gryllus
testaceous Walck.
Liogryllus
bimaculatus De Geer (= Gryllus ?; = Acheta
bimaculata ?; = G. bimaculata
?; = G. bimarculata?)
Bristowe (1932) states that three species of crickets
are among other orthopterans that are eaten:
Gryllus testaceous Walck.
(Lao name: Ching-reep-sigh), Brachytrupes portentosus Licht. (Lao
name: Ching-reep-ong), and Liogryllus bimaculatus De Geer. These crickets are considered to have a rich
flavor, but Bristowe found them insipid.
After the head is removed, the insects are roasted on sticks over a
fire. Thais as well as Laos were observed
by Bristowe to eat Brachytrupes
at Patani and Hua Hin.
According to Vara-asavapati
et al (1975), people in
the Northeast eat several kinds of crickets (Gryllidae), but the most widely
liked is the short-tailed cricket, Brachytrupes
portentosus, known as jee-pom or jing-kong or jing-reed-hua-to (p.
39). The season for crickets is the
middle of the rainy season and the beginning of winter, and between July and
December villagers sell short-tailed crickets in the markets. The crickets stay in their tunnels, which are
about one foot deep, during the day and come out at night. They feed on young plants and are an
agricultural pest. Vara-asavapati et al
state that the crickets do not like lights, but that is contrary to reports
from elsewhere. Villagers use shovels to
dig the crickets from the ground. There
is usually one cricket per hole.
Children sometimes collect them by pouring water into the holes to force
them out or will catch them in traps at night [the traps are not
described]. The crickets may be eaten
whole or cut into small pieces. They are
fried, grilled or put into curry as a substitute for meat. The other species of edible crickets are
harvested either by digging or at night at lights.
Hirashima et al (1979) describe how the cricket, Brachytrupes portentosus Lichtenstein, is
sold in the market at Chiang Mai. The
shopkeeper takes the crickets from a plastic bag, in which they are kept alive,
and spits them longitudinally from head to abdomen on a bamboo stick, 3 or 4 crickets
per stick. They are then fried in oil in
front of shoppers. According to the
authors, although somewhat lacking in flavor, "It was well edible, having
a taste somewhat similar to shrimp."
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the short-tail cricket, Brachytrupes sp., known as jee-pom, and
the cricket, Gryllus bimarculatus
Degeer, known as jing-riid, are pounded into paste, deep-fried, roasted. See Table 1 for seasonal availability and
Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses. Acheta bimaculata and Brachytrupes portentosus (crickets)
adult: Ching Reed (Chi Reed) and Ching
Klong or Chi Pom, respectively; 5 baht/25 adults: end of rainy season; steamed
(Watanabe and Satrawaha 1984).
Jonjuapsong, mentioning
Gryllus bimarculatus and Brachytrypes portentosus, states that
crickets are caught by digging around their tunnel entrances to a depth not
greater than one foot, driving them out by filling the holes with water, or
collecting them as they fly around lights at night. They are barbecued on sticks after the wings
are removed and they have been eviscerated.
"Fried without oil, crickets also serve as food to be eaten while
drinking alcohol."
See
also Bristowe (1932), Somnasang et al (1984, 1985a), and Yhoung-aree and
Puwastien (1997) in the Introduction, and Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under
Miscellaneous.
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Gryllotalpa
africana Beauv., adult
Bristowe (1932) states that the mole cricket, Gryllotalpa africana Beav. (Lao name: Kin-ni; Thai name: Mang-ka-chan), is dug from its burrows by
Laos in all districts of Thailand. It
occasionally flies into houses at night.
Sungpuag and Puwastien (1983) state that the mole cricket, Gryllotalpa africana, known as ma-lang-gra-chawn, is boiled,
pan-roasted. See Table 1 for seasonal
availability and Tables 2 and 3 for nutrient analyses. Watanabe
and Satrawaha (1984) summarize the Gryllotalpa africana adult as
follows: Malaeng Krachorn; 2 baht per
shallow scoop (about 5 cm in diameter); rainy season; sold live.
See also Somnasang et al (1984, 1985a) in the
Introduction and Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) under Miscellaneous.
Tettigoniidae
(long-horned grasshoppers)
Scudderia sp., adult
From among the Tettigoniidae Vara-asavapati et al (1975,
p. 49) mention Scudderia sp.,
known as tak-ka-tan-nuat-yao. They are
caught and prepared similarly to grasshoppers.
Phasmida
Eurycnema
versirubra Serville, frass
Excrement of the giant phasmid, Eurycnema versirubra Serville, is used to
make a very acceptable and flavorful tea (Jolivet
1971). The phasmid feeds on
the guava tree (Psidium quajava
L.) (the myrtle family) although other host plants may be used in
Thailand. The excrement is very fragrant
and somewhat resembles the odor of Chinese jasmine tea. After drying, hot water is poured on the
excrements. According to Jolivet, the
flavor is excellent. It is sold in
Chinese stores, especially in the central parts of Thailand.
Miscellaneous
As part of the United Nations-Government of Thailand
project, "Integrated Development of the Phu Wiang Watershed," Ngamsomsuke et al (1987) reported on farmers' attitudes toward
forest, plantation and conservation farming.
The study was based on the assumption that in order to protect the
existing forest reserve and improve the living conditions of the rural
population, "good mutual understanding between the project and the
watershed population is...crucial for sustained success." The watershed is located in the Phy Wiang
valley in the Phu Wiang district of Khon Kaen province, about 70 km northwest of
Khon Kaen City. The forest still
occupies about 63 percent of the watershed and is a source of many natural
foods: 49 spp. of wild vegetables, 52
spp. of fruits, 29 spp. of mushrooms, 27 spp. of mammals and birds, and 28 spp.
of insects. There are 160 spp. of
medicinal plants. It was found that more
than 80 percent of households surveyed consume or make other use of these
forest products, and cash income from sale of these products accounts for about
10 percent of annual household income.
Logging by most people is for home use only, but poorer people, with
little or no paddy land, are more likely to be involved in lumbering for cash.
Ngamsomsuke et al summarized farmers' attitudes as
follows:
Farmers with less than 3.2 ha of
paddy make up 86 percent of those who use the uplands and almost all report the
land as their own. The local population
feels disadvantaged by the reduced cropping area due to forest
plantations. The farmers would rather
obtain legal permission to continue cropping cassava inside the forest
reserve. They said if such permission
could be obtained they would protect the forest, but the researchers did not
determine exactly how. Although farmers
recognize the environmental benefits of forest cover, they place a higher value
on short-term financial benefits, such as from cassava cropping. Problems of erosion and reduced productivity
from upland soils are acknowledged by most people, but little action is being
undertaken to reverse this trend. If
farmers were to plant trees for their own benefit, they would prefer fruit
trees. The main benefit they see from
the reforestation project is the possibility of employment.
Forest clearing accelerated as cassava became more widely
adopted in the mid-1970's, and, as a percentage of total land area declined
from 76.5% in 1976 to 68.4% in 1982 and to 62.7% in 1984. Demographic data indicate that population
pressure will strongly increase in the next 10 years, with an increase in
illegal logging when legal access to the forest is prohibited. More than 60% of the villagers are
farmers. Rice production is a major
activity, but it is for home consumption, not a source of cash income. Some villages import rice. Major upland crops are cassava and kenaf
which are produced for cash income. Vegetables,
legumes, and perennial fruit trees are also planted, and short-duration fruit
trees such as banana and papaya, and also mung beans are produced as additional
cash crops. Poor families, young
families, and young members (particularly daughters) of large families are more
likely to engage in off-farm employment when opportunities arise.
The investigators noted that, "the villagers did not
refer to livestock production as an occupation although they raise poultry for
home consumption and sell them when cash is needed in emergency." Cattle are not numerous, but buffalo raising
is important for land preparation. Fish
and certain other small game animals are of considerable importance in the
diet. Relatively little time is spent
fishing but fish, crabs, etc. are readily gathered and when there is a surplus,
they are sold. Some villagers have
recently started fish culture.
With the preceding background on the agriculture,
demographics and economy of the Phu Wiang valley, we can now turn to a consideration
of the forest as a source of natural foods as reported by Ngamsomsuke et
al. They found that, similar to the
earlier report by Somnasang et al (1986) in northeastern Thailand, the three
main sources of natural foods are paddy fields, forest, and water sources;
however, because of the greater extent of forest cover in Phu Wiang, the forest
is of greater importance as a source of natural foods. While villagers do collect natural foods from
the paddy fields and water sources more often than from the forest, the amount
collected per unit of time from these sources is less than that from the
forest.
The total species found by Ngamsomsuke et al to be
gathered and percentage of households that gather forest products, including
insects, are shown in Thailand Table 5 (see authors' Tables 2.4 and 2.5, pp. 34
and 35) , which is condensed from more detailed data presented by the
researchers. Relative to their more
extensive data on number of species, the authors state:
The number of species sold is
usually smaller than those for consumption in all product groups [indicating]
that the majority of the types of forest products gathered are consumed in the
homes. More valuable things are sold
when there is enough of other less valuable products for consumption. The study has not found any single forest
product collected solely for commercial purpose nor is there any single
household involved in selling purpose only without using the product
themselves. In addition, there are only
small variations in number of species collected for home consumption among
different groups of farmers (including those outside the valley). Comparison between the villagers inside and
outside the valley showed the total number of species gathered for sale to be
about the same.
Relative to the number of households that participate in
gathering forest products (Table 5), Ngamsomsuke et al state: "More than 80 percent of the households
in each group on the average are involved in the consumption and use of forest
products. There are variations among the
product groups due to availability and need, but there is little difference
among types of people participating (leaders [village headmen, etc.],
non-leaders [ordinary villagers], farm-size [large, medium, small, or very
small farms], etc.) in terms of the number
and types of products
used." This point is illustrated in
Thailand Table 6 (authors' Table 2.5, p. 35) which breaks down the
"Insects group" in Table 5.
[This doesn't seem to square with the authors' statement (p. 30)
that: "Findings showed that a
larger percentage of smaller farmers collected forest products for home
consumption and sale. This confirms RRA
finding that the poorer groups have higher dependency on the forest."]
Ngamsomsuke et al (p. 72) report 28 species of edible
insects in the Phu Wiang valley, some of which are reported only by the local
name. At least two species are first
reports from Thailand: a scale insect, Laccifer lacca Kerr, known as krang
(Homoptera) and a stink bug, Tesseratoma
papillosa, known as maeng kaeng (Hemiptera). Because of the species reported by local name
and differences in spelling of local names from previous reports in some cases
and some variance in taxonomic names used, we duplicate the entire list below:
Coleoptera: June beetle (Apogonia
spp., maeng ghi-noon; buffalo dung beetle (family Histeridae, maeng
gkoot-gchji); rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes
rhinoceros, maeng karm); metallic woodborer beetle (Sternocera acquisignata, maeng tup); true
water beetle (Cybister limbatus,
maeng dtup-dtow).
Hemiptera: giant water bug (Lethocerus indicus, maeng dah); back swimmer (Notonica underata, maeng hoo-ah-kwooie).
Homoptera: cicada (Dundubia
intermerata, chjuk-chjan).
Hymenoptera: red ant's egg (kai-mot-daeng, or mot-daeng);
bees, wasps (beung or dtaw or dtaen).
Isoptera: winged termite (Reticulitermes flavipes, maeng mow); termites (bpluak).
Odonata: dragonfly nymph (maeng ra-ngum).
Orthoptera: a kind of cricket (chji-nai); short tail
cricket (Brachytrupes spp.,
chji-bpom); mole cricket (family Tridactylidae, maeng gkra-chorn); locust (Locustra spp., dtuk-dtaen).
Order unknown, given
only as local names: maeng now-mai, mim,
maeng gkauk, maeng e, maeng kow-sarn, maeng chjoo-chjee.
As part of the joint project on "Integrated Development
of the Phu Wiang Watershed," aimed at diversifying the rural economy
through creation of new sources of income based on sound use of natural
resources, Sterk (1988) presents a financial analysis of
traditional and improved sericulture.
Although use of the byproduct pupae is not mentioned in the report, they
of course represent a source of food and animal feed. The author briefly outlines the sericulture
production process (pp. 3-8), describes traditional sericulture (pp. 9-14), and
modern ways of sericulture (pp. 15-24).
Other aspects are addressed in subsequent chapters and appendices. The author states (p. 41) that: "raising the income of poor farmers from
3000 to 4000 baht means little, because they will remain poor farmers, but
increasing their incomes substantially - to 15,000 or even 23,000 baht - means
development." The report describes
and analyzes the requirements for accomplishing this.
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