Chapter 25

OTHER COUNTRIES IN SOUTHEASTERN ASIA

Countries included in this chapter are Myanmar (Burma), followed by, in alphabetical order, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, The Philippines and Vietnam.

Regional Taxonomic Inventory (see Chapter 23)

MYANMAR

(Burma)

Ghosh (1924, pp. 403 ff.; vide Bodenheimer 1951, pp. 268-269) reports that many insects have found a place in the diets of the Burmeses, Karens, Chins, Kachins, Shans, Talaings and others. The Buddhists have no objection there to eating animals killed by others. Many Burmeses kill insects for themselves, as well as for sale. Ghosh considers his list of the insects eaten in Myanmar (discussed below by insect order) to be incomplete.

Frederick Delphin, MD, Ph.D. (pers. comm. 1988), a native of Myanmar and occupant of the chair in zoology at Mandalay University prior to 1978, provided a considerable amount of more recent information on insects used as food in Burma (discussed below by insect order). Mentioning that, in upper Myanmar, even scorpions, killed by immersion in hot water, are considered as food and are sold in the village markets, Dr. Delphin concluded his remarks by saying: "I come from a culture where insects are traditionally eaten because we like the taste of them. If I have written this account with my heart and soul, I have also written it with my stomach, so to speak."

Coleoptera

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Cerambycid larvae are extracted from logs, dried, preserved in oil, and consumed with Burmese tea (Ghosh 1924).

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv., larva

Ghosh reports that the larva of the curculionid, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, known as on-po, or coconut insect, is liked by everyone but is not easily procured. It occurs in Phoenix acaulis. Larvae are fattened by being placed inside ripe coconuts from which the water has been drained, then they are sold for 8 annas. They are eaten boiled; the skin, which separates during boiling, is rejected.

Dr. Delphin mentions that in the coastal areas of the Irrawaddy Delta, the larva of Rhynchophorus, which lives in the soft core of the brackish water palm tree, is as highly prized as is the larva of the dung beetle elsewhere. He relates an amusing incident relative to this species that occurred while he was at Mandalay University:

As in most developing countries, a professor is somebody who is expected to know everything about his subject (that is the connotation of the term professor in the Burmese language, pah-mouk-kha). So, when anything zoological was to be identified, the professor would be referred to. It so happened that, one day in 1974 or 1975, none other than the President, General Ne Win, on his return from an excursion to the riverine towns, brought back some larvae of Rhynchophorus, and he wanted to know the true identity of the insect. Local superstition had it that the larva changes into a strange-looking creature (obviously the pupa), which then emerges from the palm tree and flies away as a bird!!! The larvae were sent to the professor at Rangoon University; he, having been my professor, called me at Mandalay to come to Rangoon urgently; in this context, a call meant a command. In the meantime, the Rangoon people had told the First Lady that the larva was an `Ee-koke,' which is the Burmese name for the larva of the dung beetle; but the First Lady said she was familiar with the Ee-koke, having herself eaten it many times before, but that the present larva was from a palm tree and not from a ball of earth. Fortunately for we zoologists, I was already familiar with the palm weevil, and could come up with the identification right away.

Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)

Eretes stictus Linn. (= E. sticticus), larva, adult

Adults of the dytiscid beetle, Eretes sticticus, are eaten, although Ghosh apparently refers to an earlier record by Maxwell-Lefroy. According to the latter author (1971 reprint, pp. 276-277), the insect is known as the "Twinpo"; both larvae and adults are eaten and "considered a delicacy by the Burman."

Delphin says that a very popular insect is the larva of Eretes sticticus, which breeds in prodigious numbers in a lake in the crater of an extinct volcano at Twinn-daung in central Myanmar. The larvae come up to the shore and burrow into the soil where they pupate. The larvae are sundried, then fried crisp and eaten as a snack between meals or as a dessert after meals. The larvae are also used as a substitute or in addition to powdered shrimp in the typically Burmese preparation consisting of fermented tea leaves (called Le-hpet = tea) (called pickled tea in the British press), toasted sesame seeds, crisp fried slivers of garlic, shrimp (or fish) sauce (in lieu of salt), and chopped hot green peppers, with a dash of fresh lime or lemon juice for tartness. This is eaten at all times of the day or night, and is offered to visitors to homes, and as a digestive after the meal at typical Burmese social gatherings. Many foreigners cannot tolerate the taste, but those that like the taste can get quite addicted to it.

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Helicopris bucephalus (author?), larva, pupa

Oryctes rhinoceros (Linn.), larva

Xylotrupes gideon (Linn.), larva

According to Ghosh, the pupa of the large dung beetle, Helicopris bucephalus, known as shwe-po, is in "great demand among the Shans," each pupa costing 1 to 1½ annas. It is "widely exported." It is common from March to May in the Shan hills, where men, women and children dig over large areas in search of the pupae which are found inside round balls of earth one to two feet deep in the soil. As summarized by Bodenheimer (p. 269), "They seem to know as if by instinct where to dig for these balls by finding the opening hole of the gallery." They are dug out during the "season when the cuckoo begins to sing." Another scarabaeid, the larva of Oryctes rhinoceros, which breeds in dung heaps and is eaten fried, is "highly esteemed by the Karens." The larva of Xylotrupes gideon is also eaten. Other Coleoptera include larvae of various species that are found in cattle droppings and which are "eaten by many"; and various beetles attracted to light and collected with lanterns, then eaten or sold.

Delphin states that:

The larva of the dung beetle (Scarabaeidae: Coprinae) which is enclosed in a globe of earth, is particularly prized. The globe is found some one to three or more feet underground, either singly or in groups of three or more, and entails a lot of hard work to be unearthed. The gooey contents of the larva are squeezed out of the cuticle and cooked with scrambled eggs. (This is one insect I have never had the courage to try because I do not like gooey things except perhaps oat-meal porridge.)

Hemiptera

Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)

Lethocerus indicus Lep. & Serv., adult

Delphin mentioned the giant water bug, Lethocerus, which is collected in the Rangoon area as it flies around the bright mercury lanterns that line the streets. The bugs are placed on hot coals, and the cooked insides eaten just as one would the soft parts of the limbs of lobsters and crabs. This practice, however, is not widespread.

Notonectidae (back-swimmers)

Notonecta sp.

Delphin notes that in some parts of central and upper Burma, especially in the Mandalay area, myriads of Notonecta are scooped up from the ponds, mashed in a mortar, and used as a shrimp substitute to give "body" to gravies and soups and other dishes.

Other Hemiptera

Bristowe (1932, p. 397) cites Kingdon Ward's book, In Farthest Burma, as saying that Ward's Nung porters searched in the "shingle" of a river bed for a species of bug (Hemiptera?), "which when captured was decapitated between the fingernails and dropped into a bamboo tube. These bugs are fried in oil and eaten as a delicacy, despite their horrible odour."

Homoptera

Cicadidae (cicadas)

Platypleura insignis Distant, nymph

Distant (1892; vide Bodenheimer 1951, pp. 269-270) reported that the larva of the cicadid, Platypleura insignis, is collected by the dexterous use of a long thorny branch inserted into a shaft sunk 60-90 cm into the ground. It is considered a great luxury by the Karens. Delphin states: "In the northern and southern Shan states, the cicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) is highly esteemed. I have tried them, and must say they are tasty, but to all Burmese, the tastiest insect is the large brown cricket."

Hymenoptera

Apidae (honey bees)

Among the Sema Negas, the nests of wild rock bees become the private property of the finder (Hutton 1921, p. 72). Both honey and grubs are harvested. The collector must observe certain restrictions (described by Hutton) in taking the nest. A "much-relished soup" is made from the eggs, larvae and pupae of honey bees which are boiled with the comb (Ghosh 1924), and Delphin also notes that the larvae and pupae of honey bees are eaten.

Formicidae (ants)

Formica ?, adult

Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.), larva, adult

Bingham (1903, p. 311) noted that in Myanmar, as well as in Thailand and parts of India, a paste is made by pounding the ant, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr., which is eaten as a condiment with curry. Maxwell-Lefroy (1971 reprint, p. 276) mentioned the red ant as a delicacy in Myanmar. According to Ghosh, nests of the weaver ant, O. smaragdina, are collected and the adults and larvae killed by smoke. They are then made into a paste which turns sour and is called Khagyin. It is consumed especially by the women, who believe it to be good for menstruation. Delphin states that the large red ant, Formica [or O. smaragdina?], which lives in paper nests on trees, particularly mango trees, is used as an ingredient in a cough expectorant called locally Yet-hsar, "a salt to lick." This "salt" is widely eaten not only to loosen phlegm in the throat, but also to leave a pleasant taste in the mouth.

Vespidae (wasps, hornets)

Vespa auraria (author?), larva, pupa

The wasp, Vespa auraria, is collected by the Shans by smoking the nests at night. The larvae and pupae are eaten. Wasps nesting underground are also caught and eaten (Ghosh 1924).

Isoptera

Winged termites "are eaten in many places, boiled or fried" (Ghosh 1924). According to Delphin, termites are eaten raw as they emerge from underground in the extreme northern parts of Myanmar. The queen termites are a particularly great delicacy.

Lepidoptera

Bombycidae (silkworm moths)

Bombyx mori (Linn.), pupa

Ghosh (1924) reports that silkworms, Po-gaung-gyaw (presumably Bombyx mori), are eaten fried or are stored for future use, then boiled before being eaten. They sell for 1½ rupees per 3½ lbs. The silkworm pupa is ready to be eaten as it comes from the reeling pan in boiled condition. According to Ghosh, "It was delightful to see the little children come begging for such pupae from the Indian reelers...in the Prome district among the Yabeins." Also, the boiled pupae made a ready dish to be carried home by the girls being trained, after the day's work was done.

Orthoptera

Gryllidae (crickets)

Brachytrupes portentosus Licht., (= Brachytrypes achitinus)

The big brown cricket, Brachytrupes portentosus (= Brachytrypes achatinus), called payit, "is widely eaten and sold, fried, on the market at Mandalay" (Ghosh 1924). Collectors in the villages sell 10 large crickets for 2 annas. In Mandalay, 100 are sold for 1 rupee and 4 annas. Fried crickets are sometimes eaten by the basketsfull during festivals of the "rich."

According to Delphin, the most popular food insect in Burma is the large cricket, Brachytrupes portentosus, which breeds underground and emerges during the end of the rainy season, around September-October. It is particularly plentiful in the upper regions of the country, less so in the Rangoon area. It is gathered by the thousands at sundown and is considered to be more delicious when dug up from the loamy earth or when just emerging from underground rather than after it has flown around and maybe fallen into muddy fields or drains. The spiny tarsi, mouthparts and wings are clipped, the gut pulled out, and then the crickets are mixed with ground garlic and salt and deep fried until crisp. Females laden with eggs are more prized than the males. Live as well as fried crickets may be bought in the local markets.

Another former Burmese national, now living near Chicago, mentioned to the author (pers. comm. 1988) that the "large brown crickets" which she ate as a child (B. portentosus, obviously) is the food which she misses the most since coming to the United States.

CAMBODIA

(Kampuchea)

Reports of insect consumption in Cambodia are almost non-existent, but it must occur fairly widely there as it is widespread in Viet Nam to the east and in Thailand to the west. Bréhion (1913; vide Bodenheimer 1951, pp. 264-265) mentions that among the forest-dwelling Mois in Khas and Pnons (Cambodia), many big beetles, all larvae, and "every living thing" is eaten when hunger prevails.

Onnucha Hutasingh (1996) reports that "Cambodian farmers usually catch locusts, high in protein, from Ban Komokrown near Bantey Meanchey's Sisaphon district and sell them to Thai traders at Rong Klua market [Thailand] where they fetch 40 baht a kilogramme. Fried locusts are a popular snack among Cambodians and Thais." Hutasingh interviewed a Cambodian villager at the Rong Klua market who removes wings from locusts for four baht a kg. According to Hutasingh, many Cambodian villagers have abandoned their land to work as laborers along the Thai border for a daily wage of 50-80 baht.

INDONESIA

Van der Burg (1904, pp. 37, 90 f.; vide Bodenheimer, pp. 235-236) reported many species of insects that are used as food in Indonesia, mentioning also taboos which include among the Muslims, ants, bees, flies, worms and water animals. Species discussed by Van der Burg are listed below under the appropriate orders and families. Citing earlier work by Greshoff, Van der Burg mentions that the cicada or gareng, caterpillars of Hyblea puera known as entong or oengker, and grubs of the palm weevils, Rhynchophorus palmarum and R. ferrugineus known as oelar ratan, gendon, sabeta, oelar sagoe, or olakna mandjalin, are all eaten. The latter are very fat and are eagerly eaten when roasted with ketan. According to Greshoff, the caterpillars of Euproctes (?) mulleri are reportedly poisonous as are the following orthopterans: Poecilocerus punctatus (walang peloes), Acanthoderus bifoliatus (onggas), and Bactarina nematodes (walang kandel).

Scheltema (1930, p. 379; vide Bodenheimer, pp. 236-237) (awaiting re-translation) states that the Batakkers in Tapanoeli (Sumatra) consume as animal food the meat of buffaloes and pigs, chicken, cats, mice, rats, frogs, the larvae of crickets, wasps and an insect pupa. Bodenheimer (1951, p. 236) relates original observations in Indonesia by Prof. S. Leefmans of Amsterdam: these are given below under the appropriate orders and families.

Coleoptera

Cerambycidae (long-horned beetles)

Batocera rubus (Linn.) (= B. albofasciata), larva

The longicorn beetles, Batocera albofasciata Deg. and B. rubus Linn., are eaten in Indonesia (Netolitzky 1920; vide Bodenheimer, p. 209) (awaiting re-translation).

Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)

Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv., larva

In the Moluccas, the palmworm is regularly found in the market (Burr 1939). Ghesquièré (1947), citing earlier references, states that the large palm larvae "are preferably given to weak and tuberculan persons because they are an easily digestible and nutritious food. Better yet, some mulattos who have settled in Europe have these highly nutritious foods sent to them from Java for their own consumption."

Bodenheimer (1951) cites observations by Leefmans: "The larvae of big beetles, such as of Rhynchophorus, Psodocerus, etc., which develop in palm stems are prized as food on the Moluccan Islands."

The major food of the Asmat people in West Irian is the starch of the sago palm, which is eaten roasted (Kirk 1972, pp. 391, 394, 403):

From the sago palm comes also the great Asmat delicacy, the sago grub, which is the soft white larva of the capricorn beetle. The people actually raise these. They fell a tree and cut holes in the trunk to let the beetles in. The beetles lay their eggs, the eggs hatch into grubs....The villagers return about six weeks later and harvest dozens of grubs from each trunk. A prized delicacy, the larvae are skewered and roasted.

Bishop Alphonse A. Sowada OSG (pers. comm. 1988) narrates a 1986 film describing the Pir-Jimi feast of the Asmat people. The Pir-Jimi honors and "sacralizes" close friendships within the framework of ritual, and in daily parlance is known as the sago larvae feast because the primary focus is upon the larvae. During dancing, first by the women and then by the men, two cylindrical tubes formed from sago leaf fronds become filled with larvae, as one by one the dancers approach the container and pour their larvae into it. Only the adult men and old women are allowed to eat the "sacralized" larvae; enough larvae are saved which are not used in the ritual, however, so that everyone gets some larvae to eat. The film is available from the Crosier Fathers and Brothers Province, 3204 East 43rd Street, Minneapolis, MN 55406. This material is also used in a book by Ligabue.

Cahill (1992) described his experiences far upriver in the Asmat region (Indonesian half) of New Guinea:

. . . we traded a length of fishing line and a dozen hooks for what William assured us was the local culinary treat: two pounds of fat sago beetle larvae wrapped in sago leaves and secured with a thin strip of rattan. . . . Stef [an Asmat] cooked a dinner of fried catfish along with a healthy portion of sago beetle. The larvae were fried brown in the pan. They were crisp and sort of fishy tasting on the outside, probably because they had been sauteed in fish oil. Inside, they were the color and consistency of custard. They were unlike anything I'd ever eaten before; the closest I can come to describing the taste is 'creamy snail.'

Dresner (1993) discussed the economic potential of palm weevil culture in Indonesia, noting that with most of the coconut plantations now overage, 80 years plus, such a program would provide an incentive to cut down the old, less productive trees and replace them with genetically selected high yielding plants. Dresner's personal assessment as to flavor was enthusiastic.

See also Van der Burg (1904) in the Introduction.

Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)

Lepidiota hypoleuca (Wied.), adult

Leucopholis rorida (Fabr.), adult

Cockchafers, or legi, are roasted and are cooked in the native shops in portions of 10 beetles each (Van der Burg 1904). Bodenheimer (1951) cites observations by Leefmans: "The males of the common beetles, Leucopholis rorida Fabr., which swarm in the evening, are attracted in numbers to stones which are dyed red by the fruit of Capsicum. There they are collected, roasted and eaten in Java...Other beetles commonly eaten in Java are the swarming Lepidiota hypoleuca Wied. on naron-trees."

Family uncertain

Psodocerus sp., larva

Cowan (1865, p. 70) says the Javanese moutouke is the grub of a large beetle. It lives in wood. "It is as big as a silk-worm and very white, . . . a mere lump of fat. Thirty are roasted together threaded on a little stick and are delicate eating."

For mention of Psodocerus, see Bodenheimer (1951) under Curculionidae.

Hemiptera

Corixidae (water boatmen)

Leptocorisa acuta (author?), adult

Sternocoris varicornis (author?), adult

Van Eek (cited by Van der Burg 1904, p. 91) conducted proximate analyses on the waterbugs, Leptocorisa acuta and Stenocoris varicornis, which are prepared as sambal: water 23.4%, protein 38.1%, fat 29.2%, ashes 3.0%. Caloric value is stated as 276, but sample size is not given.

Homoptera

Cicadidae (cicadas)

See Van der Burg (1904) in the Introduction.

Hymenoptera

Apidae (honey bees)

Melipona minuta (author?), larva, pupa

Melipona vidua (author?), larva, pupa

The honey of the stingless bees, Melopona minuta and M. vidua, called tawon or leba, together with the bee larvae and pupae (tawon moeda, gono, tawon nom) are eagerly eaten by the native women (Van der Burg 1904). The brood (larvae and pupae) are wrapped with the comb into a piece of leaf and roasted (pipit)(although it is also stated that the pupae are unhealthful and cause pains in the throat). Bodenheimer cites Brygoo (1946) that bee larvae are highly esteemed in Timor.

Formicidae (ants)

Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.)

The red ant, O. smaragdina is mixed with rice as a condiment by the Dayaks of Borneo (Beccari 1904, p. 161).

Vespidae (wasps, hornets)

See Bodenheimer (1951) in the Introduction.

Isoptera

Termitidae

Macrotermes sp., flying sexuals

Termes atrox (author?), winged sexuals, queens

Termes destructor (author?), winged sexuals, queens

Termes fatale (author?), winged sexuals, queens

Termes mordax (author?), winged sexuals, queens

Termes sumatranum (author?), winged sexuals, queens

Giesenhagan (1902, p. 78) observed a termite swarm in Java (translation):

Soon, men, women and children from the worker's village collected in front of the exit hole of the underground structure and began to catch the insects and collect the bodies in pots after having pulled off the frail, long wings. Even a dog had come from the village and was catching insects which got away from the people. Upon asking, I found out that these insects, once prepared, were considered a treat among the Malayans.

Van der Burg (1904) states that termites (rajap, aniani), including Termes atrox, T. destructor, T. fatale, T. mordax, and T. sumatranum are much sought after; the wings of the flying sexuals (laron, raron, reraron) are removed and the termites are roasted with flour and baked into a kind of cake. The roasted queen (ratoe rajap is a "special delicacy," tasting like almonds.

Bodenheimer (1951) cites observations by Leefmans: "In Java the flying sexuals of termites (larum, mainly Macrotermes sp.) are caught on small candles attached to pieces of bamboo. The insects burn their wings on the light to which they are attracted and are then avidly eaten."

Anon (1992) stated that about twice a year, termites emerge in tremendous numbers all over Java. In the cities, many houses having wood roof framing or wood window frames also produce termites, releasing thousands of them into a living room on a given night. Lights are turned off and a candle is placed over a container of water; the termites are attracted to the flame where their wings are singed and they fall into the water. Thus, food is collected and the house is temporarily rid of termites without the use of insecticide. Following such an emergence, Anon was offered at breakfast "a huge omelette, loaded not with mushrooms or ham, but filled with the visitors of the night before. Not bad either!"

Lepidoptera

Regarding a toxic caterpillar, see Van der Burg (1904) in the Introduction.

Hyblaeidae

Hyblea puera Cramer, larva

See Van der Burg (1904) in the Introduction.

Odonata

Aeschnidae (darners)

Anax spp., nymphs, adults

Libellulidae (common skimmers)

Crocothemis spp., nymphs, adults

Neurothemis spp., nymphs, adults

Burr (1939, pp. 213-214) credits A.R. Wallace with the information that the natives of Lombok catch dragon flies on twigs smeared with birdlime: "The bodies are torn off and fried with onions and preserved shrimps. It sound a queer blend, but is considered a great delicacy."

On Bali during the rice harvest, women and children catch adult dragonflies on long slender reed wands that are smeared with a sticky gum (Moore 1951, pp. 18-19). The dragonflies are enticed to alight on the wand or are caught in mid-air by a deft cast. Later, they are fried and eaten.

Dragonflies (called "chapung") are still widely eaten in Bali, although their abundance apparently has been reduced by pesticides (Pemberton 1995). Adults of all species of both dragonflies and damselflies are sought, but larger species are most desired. The most common large species around Balinese rice fields belong to the genera Anax (Aeschnidae) and Crocothemis and Neurothemis (Libellulidae). Unfortunately, the dragonflies caught by Pemberton were not identified to species because they were all eaten, including the intended voucher specimens!

As Pemberton notes, dragonflies are notoriously quick and difficult to catch. Several techniques are used to capture them, some of which utilize the sticky latex of the jackfruit tree, Artocarpus heterophyllus, or, less often, the latex of frangipani, Plumeria sp. The most spectacular method, though not the most productive, uses the "ngoneng" which is a stick about half a meter long with a stiff wire or reed attached to one end and a spherical globule of latex molded on the free tip of the wire or reed. To use the ngoneng, one whirls the latex sphere around in a circular motion. Dragonflies dart at the sphere, as if it were prey, and become stuck to it. Latex-tipped sticks may be used to capture dragonflies resting on low vegetation, or they may be captured by hand.

Several methods of preparation and cooking are described by Pemberton, the simplest of which is to grill them, without seasoning. The grilled dragonflies "had a carbonized crispy quality with a subtle, fat flavor." Other methods are more elaborate, a wet method involving the addition of ginger, garlic, shallots and chili pepper boiled for 5-10 minutes in coconut milk, or a dry-cooking method combining the same ingredients with fresh coconut meat wrapped in a banana leaf that is then steamed or roasted on charcoal. Nymphs are sometimes captured and are cooked with the same methods as used for adults. They are "supposed to taste better because they are softer."

According to Pemberton, dragonflies do not seem an important food in Bali or elsewhere in Asia, and he states that, "Given the ingenuity and fun involved in the capture of dragonflies, the customs seem to relate as much to sport as to food." He also states that, "The many Asian customs relating to dragonflies and other insects reflect a more positive attitude toward insects than generally occurs in the West."

Orthoptera

Regarding several toxic species of Orthoptera, see Van der Burg (1904) in the Introduction.

Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)

Acridium aerigonosum (author?) [Is this a misspelling of Acrydium?]

Grasshoppers and locusts, including Acridium aerigonosum, are eaten in West Java; vernacular names include walang, belalang, djankirk, gansir, walang gapoek and belalang gambar (Van der Burg 1904). Brygoo (1946) is cited by Bodenheimer (p. 237) that the natives of Timor prepare wholesome cakes from pounded locusts.