Chapter 26
Overview
This region includes
Regional Taxonomic Inventory
Taxa and stages consumed Countries
Coleoptera
Beetle
grubs
Aquatic
larvae and adults Japan
Cerambycidae (long‑horned beetles)
Cerambycid
larvae/pupae
Curculionidae (weevils, snout beetles)
Cyrtotruchelus longimanus (author?), larva
Rhynchophorus chinensis (author?)
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister bengalensis
Cybister guerini
Cybister japonicus Sharp, adult
Cybister limbatus Fabr., adult
Cybister spp., adults
Cybister sugillatus Er., adult
Cybister tripunctatus Ol., adult
Dytiscus marginalis (author?)
Dytiscus spp., adults Japan
Dytiscid
water beetles
Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Hydrous bilineatus MacLeay, adult
Hydrous cavisternum Bedel, adult
Hydrous hastatus Herbst, adult
Hydrous pallidipalpis MacLeay, adult
Hydrophilid
water beetles
Elateridae (click beetles)
Elaterid
larvae, pupae Japan
Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles)
Scarabaeus molossus Linn., larva
Scarab
beetle adults
Family uncertain
Melanaster chinensis Forster, larva
Psacothea hilaris Pascoe, larva
Diptera
Calliphoridae (blow flies)
Chrysomyia megacephala (Fabr.), larva
Calliphorid
larvae
Muscidae (filth flies)
Musca domestica vicina Macq., larva
Sarcophagidae (flesh flies)
Sarcophagid
larvae
Ephemeroptera
Mayfly nymphs/adults
Hemiptera
Aquatic Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
(giant water bugs)
Lethocerus
indicus Lep. & Serv., adult
Belostomatid sp.
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Tessaratoma
papillosa Drury, adult
Homoptera
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Graptopsaltria
nigrofasciata Motschulsky, adult
Cicadid spp.,
nymphs/adults
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
Apis
mellifera Linn., drone pupa
Bee larvae/pupae/adults
Formicidae
(ants)
Polyrhachis
vicina Roger
Ant larvae/pupae
Scoliidae
(scoliids)
Scoliid larva, pupa
Vespidae
{wasps, hornets)
Polistes
spp.,
pupae Japan
Vespa
japonica (author?)
Vespa spp.,
larvae
Vespula
lewisi (author?), larva, pupa, adult
Vespula sp., larva,
pupa
Wasp larvae, pupae
Isoptera
Rhinotermitidae
Coptotermes
formosanus (author?)
Termitidae
Macrotermes
barnyi (author?)
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera pupae not
found in soil
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa
Cossidae
(carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Cossid spp., larvae Japan
Gelechiidae
Pectinophora
gossypiella Saunders, larva
Hepialidae
(ghost moths and swifts)
Hepialus
armoricanus Oberthur, larva with Cordyceps fungus
Hepialus
oblifurcus
Limacodidae
(slug caterpillars)
"Eucleid" sp.
(hag moth), pupa
Noctuidae
(noctuids)
Hydrillodes
morosa (author?), larval excreta
Pyralidae
(snout and grass moths)
Aglossa
dimidiata (author?), larval excreta
Saturniidae
(giant sikworm moths)
Antheraea
pernyi (Guérin-Méneville), pupa
Saturnia
pyretorum (Westw.), larva
Sphingidae
(sphinx or hawk-moths)
Clanis
bilineata
Sphinx moth larvae
Mantodea
Mantid spp.
Odonata
Dragonfly nymphs, adults
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short‑horned grasshoppers)
Acrida
lata Motschulsky, adult
Locusta
migratoria Linn.
Locusta
migratoria manilensis Megen
Oxya
chinensis Thunberg
Oxya
japonica japonica Willemse, adult
Oxya
sinuosa Mistshenko, adult
Oxya
velox Fabr.
Oxya
yezoensis Shiracki
Locusts/grasshoppers
Blattidae
(roaches)
Periplaneta
Periplaneta
australasiae (Fabr.)
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Crickets
Superfamily
Tettigonioidea
Tettigonioid sp.
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Mole crickets
Plecoptera
Stonefly spp., nymphs Japan
Trichoptera
Family
uncertain
Stenopsyche
griseipennis MacLachan, larva
A main characteristic of Chinese medicine is described in
an old saying that drugs and food are homologous in their function for human
health (Shen et al 1997). In keeping
with this, in
According to Hoffmann, Bodenheimer and others, the
Cantonese are the most entomophagous of the Chinese, but many insects such as
locusts, water beetles, silkworm pupae and others are marketed widely in the
country. Not all are considered
necessarily as health foods. Of the
giant water bug, Lethocerus indicus,
Hoffmann says, "They are considered a delicacy and are eaten because they
are relished; no medicinal value is ascribed to them." In general,
according to Bodenheimer, "the insects are taken as accessory food and
used as a dish which sometimes is considered as a delicacy." The pupae of the silkworm, Antheraea pernyi, are one such
luxury. Farmers who have them may give
them to their friends or relatives as "a special gift."
In both historical and modern
The second most widely eaten insect food in modern
As happened in Japan, Pemberton (1994) has documented for
South Korea the increased marketing of the rice-field grasshopper (known as metdugi) following reduced use of
pesticides. Canned silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupae are also popular (as
they are elsewhere in East Asia) and are found in the markets in Seoul. They
are also exported. They can be bought in
Asian foodshops in the United States, including in Madison, Wisconsin, where,
according to a shopkeeper they are a popular item in the local Korean
community.
CHINA
Donovan (1798, p.6) quotes an earlier undisclosed
author saying, "Under the roots of the canes is found a large white grub,
which being fried in oil is eaten as a dainty by the Chinese," and that
"the aurelias [pupae] of the silk worm which is cultivated in China, after
the silk is wound off, furnish an article for the table." Donovan states that Scarabaeus molossus Linn. and S. bucephalus are both very common in
China, and of the grub found in cane roots, he states, "Perhaps this is
the larva of Scarabaeus molossus,
which, like many other of the Scarabaei, may live sedentary in the ground, and
subsist on the roots of plants: the
general description and abundance of this insect in China favours such
opinion." Darwin (1800,
p. 364), possibly drawing on the same early author, mentions that "the
aurelia of the silk-worm, after the silk is wound off, and the white
earth-grub, and the larva of the sphinx moth, furnish articles at the table,
and are said to be delicious."
Williams (1853, II, P. 50), as quoted by Bodenheimer
(1951, p. 273) states: "The insect
food (of the Chinese) is confined to locusts and grasshoppers, groundgrubs and
silkworms; the latter are fried crisp when cooked." According to Bargagli (1877,
p. 7; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 274) locusts are sold in the markets of
Tientsin and Peking. Bargagli (p. 9)
also mentions the methods of preparing silkworm pupae as food, and says that
they are eaten by both the rich and the poor.
On page 10, he notes that bee and wasp larvae are eaten, and that the
mountaineers of China and Japan dig up the nests of certain ants, the pupae
from which are used as food. Chinese
boys eagerly seek from bamboo-stems certain larvae which are dark and thick as
a finger. Finally Bargagli (p. 11) notes
that mayflies are collected when swarming and pounded and mixed with honey to
make an acid preserve.
Simmonds (1885, p. 349) mentions that silkworm pupae
are hawked about the streets in China and sold to the lower classes for about
5d. per pound as an article of diet. He
mentions a price of thirty-four dollars per picul of 133 1/3 lbs at
Chinkiang. The Chinese also raise the
larvae of calliphorid flies in heaps of rotting fish near the sea-coast, which
they apparently put to use as food. The
larvae of ants are considered "a great dainty" in China, according to
Simmonds (p. 369).
Esaki (1942) states that Cybister beetles and giant waterbugs are
sold in the markets of Shanghai.
Hoffmann's (1947) paper is a major source of
information on the consumption of insects in China. The insects discussed by Hoffmann are
included below under the appropriate orders and families.
Bodenheimer (1951, pp. 273, 275-278) reported much
original information obtained through correspondence with Chinese
residents. Information from Mr. A. Ludin
is summarized by Bodenheimer (p. 273) as follows:
Mr. A. Ludin, one of our students who
was born in Manchuria and later lived at Peking, informed us that locusts and
grasshoppers are widely used there as food.
The wings and the legs are pulled off and the remainder boiled in a
special oil. Then the oil is drained off
and the crisp insect, seasoned by the flavour of the oil, is eaten. Some restaurants prepared fried pupae of bees
and roast beetles, but these are dainties which require complicated
preparation. Honey is also much used in
Manchuria. Many other insects, usually
pounded or boiled in water, are in use as popular medicines.
Bodenheimer (pp. 275-278) summarized information on
several insects (quoted below under the appropriate orders and families) from
correspondence with a Dr. Fen of Peking, some of whose observations were made
by himself, others by entomologist friends:
"Chinese people eat several kinds of insects; the eating of some of
the insects is common throughout the country, while the use of others is
limited to certain localities. In most
cases the insects are taken as accessory food and used as a dish which
sometimes is considered as a delicacy."
Anonymous (date?)
lists in a table the identity, method of preparation, localities where eaten,
and habitat where collected, for 23 species used as food, 20 of which are used
in China (translation). They are
included below under the appropriate orders and families.
Kantha (1990) reviews
dietary sources of the Chinese population and the incidence, increase and
decline of important diet-related health disorders in China during the past
four decades. The consensus among researchers is that since 1949 the public
health situation in China has improved tremendously. Kantha provides tabular
information on insect products used in Chinese traditional medicine and their
implicated remedial action (the information is drawn from an NIH translation of
"A Barefoot Doctor's Manual"):
Bee hive: Relieves
flatulence, counteracts toxicity and kills worms.
Cicada exuviae:
Reduces fevers and clears lungs.
Cricket: Promotes
diuresis.
Dung beetle: Dissipates
clots and bruises.
Locust, flying:
Supplements deficiencies and complements the blood.
Mantis: Resolves bruises
and clots.
Mantis cocoon (found on
mulberry leaves): Strengthens kidneys and relieves convulsions.
Mole cricket: Promotes
diuresis and eliminates edema.
Silkworm: Relieves
flatulence and loosens congestion.
Spanish fly (Cantharis): Cauterizes tissues to control
toxin spread (esp. used in rabid dog bites).
As medicine, insects such as crickets, flying locusts and
mantis are roasted, pulverized and mixed with boiled water before being taken
by mouth. Relative to ethnodietetics, of four regional variations that can be
identified in China's food preparation, Kantha mentions insects specifically
only in relation to Canton (southern China). The Cantonese style is
characterized by a reliance on color, and stir-frying and steaming are the
most-used methods of preparation. Significant dietary problems in the country
include deficiencies in riboflavin and iron with an estimated 100 million
Chinese children probably suffering from nutritional anemia due to iron
deficiency. Although not mentioned in the review, it can be noted in this
context that many kinds of insects are rich sources of riboflavin and/or iron.
Chen Xiaoming (1990)(The Research Institute of Insect
Resources) noted that there are many edible insects in Yunnan Province and that
many minority nationalities use them as food and for medicinal purposes. Among
the insects often eaten are a species of ant; locusts of the genera Oxya and Locusta;
pupae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori;
the termite, Coptotermes formosanus (Rhinotermitidae);
larvae and pupae of five species of bees and wasps among the Apidae, Vespidae
and Scoliidae; the moth larva, Hepialus
armoricanus (Hepialidae); the bug Tessaratoma
papillosa (Pentatomidae); and
the weevil larva, Cyrtotruchelus longimanus
(Curculionidae).
In addition to studies on the folk edible insects of
Yunnan, there is a study of Macrotermes
barnyi as a health food. The queen termites are steeped in alcohol
as a beverage rich in vitamins A and C among other micronutrients of benefit to
health. A study that will not sound too appealing to many Westerners is on the
presumed health benefits of Chongcha, a special tea made from the feces of Hydrillodes morosa (a noctuid moth larva)
and Aglossa dimidiata (a pyralid
moth larva). The former eats mainly the leaves of Platycarya stobilacea, the latter the leaves of Malus seiboldii. Chongcha is black in
color, freshly fragrant, and has been used for a long time in the mountain
areas of Guangxi, Funan and Guixhou by the Zhuan, Tong and Miao nationalities.
It is taken to prevent heat stroke, counteract various poisons, and to aid
digestion, as well as being considered helpful in alleviating cases of diarrhea,
nosebleed and bleeding hemorroids. Whatever the extent of its preventive or
curative benefits, Chongcha apparently serves as a good "cooling
beverage" having a higher nutritive value than regular tea.
Prevost (1993), of Lakeland University in Ontario,
Canada, stated that during travels in China,
Most Chinese looked at me very
puzzled and asked me why I would want to eat insects, when they could offer me
eyeballs, stomachs, intestines and heads of chicken, pigeon and turtle. They
believed that I was joking when inquiring about insects as food. After a
further discussion, they finally admitted that some people eat silkworm pupae
and giant waterbugs, but it was not common. Silkworm pupae are eaten only in
the silkworm areas during harvest of the silken cocoons when the cocoon-bearing
pupae are placed in hot water to kill them and to unravel the thread from the
cocoon. These pupae can be further processed by roasting in peanut oil.
Prevost was part of a
group that looked for edible insects in Beijing restaurants; they found no
insects but did find juvenile scorpions about 4 cm long. The scorpions were
placed on a bed of noodles and cost about US $1.00 each. According to Prevost,
they looked ferocious, but tasted fine, probably like a potato chip.
Partly contrasting and partly confirming Prevost's
observations, Professor Zuo R. Shen (1993) of Beijing Agricultural University
states that:
In Beijing a restaurant is known
well for the use of insects and other arthropods such as scorpion as medical
food. Scorpion often appears now in the dishes of many restaurants including
our university restaurant. In Shanghai there has opened a restaurant of food
insects, which is sponsored by the Shanghai Institute of Entomology and
Jinjiang Restaurant. [Also], two kinds of drugs have appeared in the market
recently, which are made of extract from moths and able to improve the sex of
man, according to the report by the producers, Jilin Research Institute of
Plant Protection and Shenyang Agricultural University.
Chen Yi and Akre (1994) state that the main thrust or
characteristic of Chinese medicine is that it combines food and medicine, and
the essence of this medicine is based on the Yingyang Theory or white and dark
equilibrium theory. They cite old
Chinese writings dating to 100-200 A.D. recording 21 species of insects as
having medicinal value, a list that was extended to 73 species with the
publication of Ben Cao Kang Mu (Compendium Materia Medica) in 1578, and to 84
species with publication of the Supplement to the Compendium in 1756. See these
authors under the Formicidae section for an extended discussion of the use of
ants as food and medicine in China.
Similarly to the above statement by Chen and Akre, Shen et al (1997) cite a Chinese saying that drugs and food are homologous
in function for human health, and they discuss a number of pharmacological
products and uses based on insects and other invertebrates.
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Larvae of the longicorn beetle (Cerambycidae): Fried or eaten raw; Sichuan, northeastern
China, Hunan; In trunks of trees (Anon.).
Curculionidae
(weevils, snout beetles)
Cyrtotruchelus
longimanus (author?), larva
Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) chinensis
(author?)
Ghesquièré (1947) stated that Rhynchophorus (= Calandra) chinensis
is consumed by the people of a large part of Asia from Ceylon to China.
Adults and larvae of weevils in bamboo: After removing head, legs, wings and
intestines, adults are soaked in sauces and baked on hot ashes; larvae are
fried with sauces; Guangxi, Sichuan; In bamboo fields (Anon.).
See also Chen X. (1990) in the Introduction.
Dytiscidae
(predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister
bengalensis Aube, adult
Cybister
guerini Aube, adult
Cybister
japonicus Sharp, adult
Cybister
limbatus Fabr., adult
Cybister
spp.,
adult
Cybister
sugillatus Er., adult
Cybister
tripunctatus Ol., adult
Dytiscus
marginalis (author?), adult
Hoffmann (1947)
states that dytiscid and hydrophilid beetles are commonly eaten in
Kwangtung Province and in other places where Cantonese dwell. Hydrophilids are less-liked and cheaper than
the dytiscids and both are cheaper than the giant waterbugs. The beetles are used both as medicine
(considered an anti-diuretic) and to a lesser extent as a confection. They are prepared by dropping them into hot
brine, apparently hastening the appearance of oil on the surface, as they are
very greasy as offered for sale. The
odor of some of these beetles is offensive, according to Hoffmann. Elytra, legs, and certain other chitinous
parts are removed prior to eating.
Species of dytiscids used include at least the following: Cybister
bengalensis Aube; C. guerini
Aube; C. japonicus Sharp; C. limbatus Fabr.; C. sugillatus Er.; and C. tripunctatus Ol.
Bodenheimer (1951, pp. 276-277) states:
Certain species of aquatic beetles
known locally in Canton as 'Lung Shih'
literally meaning 'dragon lice', are used for food by the Cantonese. Two species, namely, Cybister japonicus Sharp (Dytiscidae) and Hydrous hastatus Herbst (Hydrophilidae),
are commonly consumed. These beetles are
boiled with salt water and sold in the market.
The above mentioned two species can be purchased in any grocery in
Canton, they are eaten just as watermelon seeds and peanuts are eaten by the
local people. They can be purchased also
in Cantonese food shops in other large cities like Peking, Shanghai and
Tientsin. They may also be eaten as one
of the dishes on the table. Sometimes
they are fried.
In addition, Bodenheimer (p. 278) quotes correspondence
from Miss N.G. Sproston, of the Institute of Hydrobiology in Shanghai, to Dr.
J. Theodorides:
Beetles are a very common article of
diet in some provinces. They are for
sale in Shanghai, but are rather expensive because of the special preparation
they require. They are fried very crisp and are eaten with other rich foods
along with wine at the beginning of the feast....The rice does not appear till
it (all the best dishes except the soups and pork) is nearly over. The beetles are Dytiscidae: Dytiscus marginalis
is used extensively here, and in Japan and China the equally big Cybister japonicus is also eaten. On the whole, the Cantonese are more
entomophagous than the other Chinese; next come the Szechuanese from Western
China around Chungking. There it is
thought, that other water-beetles are eaten.
My assistant remembers eating them at his father's table when quite
young, but they were small species.
True water beetle (Dytiscidae): Removal of internal waste with warm water,
then soaked in salt, dried. Wings and
legs are removed before eating. Crisp
and tasty; Guangdong, Guangxi; In rice fields, pools (Anon.).
See also Esaki (1942) in the Introduction.
Hydrophilidae
(water scavenger beetles)
Hydrous
bilineatus MacLeay, adult
Hydrous
cavisternum Bedel, adult
Hydrous
hastatus Herbst, adult
Hydrous
pallidipalpis MacLeay (= acuminatus Mots.), adult
Hydrophilids reported by Hoffmann: Hydrous pallidipalpis MacLeay (= acuminatus Mots.) of North China and
Tibet; H. bilineatus MacLeay of
South China (and southward); H. cavisternum
Bedel of Hainan Island; H. hastatus
Herbst of Kwangtung and "Indo-China".
See also Hoffmann and Bodenheimer under the Dytiscidae.
Scarabaeidae
(scarab beetles)
Scarabaeus
molossus Linn., larva
Scarab or chafer beetle (Scarabaeidae): Adults baked until dry, then ground to flour;
Jiangsu; Forests, orchards (Anon.). See also Donovan (1798), Darwin (1800) and
Williams (1853) in the Introduction.
Family
uncertain
Melanaster
chinensis Forster, larva
Psacothea
hilaris Pascoe, larva
Bodenheimer (1951, p. 277) mentioned the above two
species as being eaten in certain localities.
According to Anon.: Grubs:
After removing head, legs, and intestine, they are fried with salt and
oil; China, Japan; Soil, or dunghills and manure piles associated with fowl or
livestock.
Diptera
Calliphoridae
(blow flies, bottle flies)
Chrysomyia
megacephala (Fabr.), larva
According to Hoffmann,
some people in the Canton area rear and dry the larvae of the green-bottle fly,
Chrysomyia megacephala (Fabr.), as
medicine and food. The medicine shops in
Canton were apparently large buyers.
Pieces of fish and meat were exposed to attract oviposition, but no
information is given concerning the rearing medium. Hoffmann notes that the flowers of privet, an
ornamental hedge in Canton, attract green-bottle flies by the thousands. Hoffmann raises questions as to the health
implications of these flies, and why they are reared at all, particularly as
they may be "obtained by the quarts from the numerous night-soil kangs in any village."
Bodenheimer (1951, p. 278) mentions that in some
localities maggots from meat (Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae) are eaten and
are called locally 'meat sprouts' in analogy to bean sprouts grown from beans).
Maggot of fly:
Cleaned, then mixed with glutinous rice powder, making cake; Southern
China (Anon.). See also Simmonds (1885) in the Introduction.
Muscidae
(filth flies)
Musca
domestica vicina Macq., larva
In a report that appeared widely in U.S. newspapers
(e.g., San Francisco Chronicle/Examiner
Jan. 23, 1994; newspaper reports summarized in Food
Insects Newsl. 7(2): 11, 1994), the official Xinhua News Agency
reported that Chinese scientists have developed nutrition-rich extracts from
maggots of the common fly [presumably Musca
domestica], and are negotiating with food and pharmaceutical firms
to mass-produce the products. It quoted one scientist as saying the maggot
extracts are "surprisingly
appealing" but did not describe how they taste. The maggot amino acids can
be used as a nutritional supplement for children's food, and the low-fat oil is
effective in preventing heart disease, the report said. It noted that the
maggots are kept in large bottles and fed distiller's grain, wheat bran and
other farm waste.
In studies on mass-rearing of the house fly (Musca domestica vicina) for protein
production, Lu and Zhong (1993, 1994, 1995) developed models and
theoretical optimal schemes for fly oviposition during the first 20 days, fly
oviposition, average eggs per fly and larval biomass.
Sarcophagidae
(flesh flies)
See Bodenheimer under Calliphoridae.
Ephemeroptera
Adults and larvae of mayflies (Ephemeridae): The larvae, which are rich in fat, are fried;
China, Japan; In streams or pools (Anon.). Bodenheimer
mentions that larvae of May flies are eaten in certain localities. See also Bargagli (1877) in the Introduction.
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
(giant water bugs)
Lethocerus
indicus Lep. & Serv., adult
The giant waterbug, Lethocerus
indicus, is called Kwai Fa Shim
or henna flower cicada because it has a pleasant odor not unlike the flowers of
henna or Lawsonia. Hoffmann
says of this species:
In Canton these bugs are prepared
for eating by dropping into boiling water to which has been added a little
salt. More rarely they are placed
briefly into deep fat to which some spices have been added....They are
considered a delicacy and are eaten because they are relished; no medicinal
value is ascribed to them. These bugs,
like the hydrophilid and dytiscid beetles, are displayed by the gallons in
numerous shops and food stalls in cities like Canton, Hong Kong, and
Shanghai. These insects are offered for
sale in Shanghai because of the large number of Cantonese living there and are
exported abroad for the same reason. The
Cantonese seem to be the chief insect eaters among the Chinese although I am
informed that the people in the Peiping area are fond of grasshoppers cooked in
sesamum oil.
The collection of
aquatic bugs and beetles is conducted as a business by
"professionals," according to Hoffmann. He states:
I have often come across them in the
country carrying their catch and their paraphernalia but only once observed a
collector at work and he promptly discontinued once becoming aware of my
presence. I have not been able to
determine if these collectors are the ones who collect frogs for the market,
but it seems certain that the professional grasshopper collectors have nothing
to do with the lowly aquatic professions.
The grasshoppers are caught and sold, alive, as bird feed.
Hoffmann notes that the
use of the giant waterbugs as human food saves the pond-fish culturists of
Kwangtung Province several hundreds of thousands of dollars annually because
the bugs are destroyers of young fish in the breeding ponds. They also occasionally are troublesome in the
outdoor rearing of goldfish and other aquarium fishes.
Bodenheimer (1951, p. 277) states: "Kwei-hua-ch'an,
a member of Hemiptera, Lethocerus indicus
Lepeletier and Serville (Belostomatidae), is a large aquatic insect also used
by Cantonese as food in a similar manner as the water beetles. They can also be purchased in food shops in
Canton."
Adult giant water bug, or fish killer: Prepared similarly to the water beetle:
Guangdong; Rice fields, pools (Anon.). See also Esaki (1942) and Prevost (1993) in
the Introduction.
Pentatomidae
(stink bugs)
Tessaratoma
papillosa Drury, adult
Lichi stink-bug, Tessaratoma
papillosa Drury: Head, legs,
wings and intestines removed, then salted, covered with cabbage leaves, and quick-boiled
on hot ashes; very tasty, no bad odor; Southern China; On lichi trees (Anon.). See also Chen (1990) in the
Introduction.
Homoptera
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Bodenheimer (1951, p.277) states:
Cicada. Any species available, adults as well as
nymphs, are eaten, especially the nymphal forms. The latter are either collected on the tree
during evening time or dug out from the ground.
They are usually eaten after frying....Boys are always lashing at the
street trees with long bamboos to bring down the cicadas, etc. Sometimes children eat various insects and
pupae they catch. The nearly emergent
cicada nymph is eaten raw as a great delicacy, particularly in Shantung.
Luo Ke (1990) reports that several insects such as
cicada are canned for sale in the markets.
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
Bee larvae and pupae.
See Bargagli (1877), Bodenheimer (1951) and Chen (1990) in the
Introduction.
Formicidae
(ants)
Polyrhachis
vicina (Roger)
Brygoo (1946, p. 51; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 233)
states that the Chinese regard ant larvae as a delicacy.
In a report carried in U.S. newspapers (e.g., The Capital Times [Madison, Wisconsin]
Oct. 22, 1992; summarized in Food Insects
Newsletter 5(3): 4, 1992), the Chinese News Agency, Xinhua, reported
a recent meeting in Nanking by ant experts and medical workers to discuss the
health benefits of eating Polyrhachis vicina
- the country's most common ant - as "crunchy morsels," or
taking a sip of essence of ant. "In some regions of southwestern China,
local people regularly eat ants," Xinhua reported. "As a result, the
locals enjoy good health." Ants were especially effective against
rheumatism, said Zhang Zhilin, the vice chairman of the Chinese entomological society.
The formic acid and other mineral traces in the insects were also effective in
the treatment of hepatitis-B and other immunity disorders, the agency reported.
In another report carried in U.S. newspapers (e.g., San Francisco Chronicle Jan. 28, 1994;
newspaper account summarized in Food Insects
Newsl. 7(2): 11, 1994),
Xinhua, China's official news agency, urged people to add ants to their
diet: Wu Zicheng, "an expert on ant diet" based in the central city
of Nanjing, has worked out dozens of recipes for ant-based cakes, teas and
wines to promote ant eating, the news agency said. "Ants are a miniature
nutritious treasury," Xinhua quoted Wu as saying, adding that ants contain
more zinc than either soybeans or pig liver. Xinhua said Chinese have been
eating ants for more than 3000 years and "the longevity of many old people
who are now over 100 years old has been found to be connected with an ant
diet."
According to an article in the Asahi Evening News, entitled "Ant foods make big bucks
in China," annual sales of ant foods in the country amount to
approximately US $100 million (Kantha 1994).
Chen Yi and Akre (1994) discuss the food and, especially, the
medicinal uses of ants, primarily the weaver ant, Polyrhachis vicina.
In ancient China ants were used as food for the nobles as well as for
the common people, and the Book of Etiquette mentions that ant eggs (pupae)
were prepared as a special paste to serve the nobles. In the southern provinces, large quantities
of pupae were collected to make a caviarlike dressing. "This delicacy was served at dinner to
welcome honored guests." It was
believed that eating ants would rejuvenate old people, and in the Supplement of
the Compendium Materia Medica it is stated that eating 6-10 g of ants per day
could make one healthy and increase milk production in women. The authors cite (and tabularize) data on
amino acids and minerals from earlier nutrient analyses of P. vicina by Chen, and they remark
specifically on the high concentration of zinc in these ants. The reported
protein content is 42-67%.
The ants are believed to have many medical functions
including improving blood circulation and metabolism, bolstering the immune
system, reducing inflammations, reducing pain, treating asthma and rheumatoid
arthritis, and slowing aging, among others.
For cancer patients, ant medicines are reported to increase appetite,
relieve pain, improve digestion and increase the number of white blood
cells. Ant medicines currently sold
without prescription include an ant wine, a syrup, a paste and a powder. To
improve palatability, they are sometimes mixed with tea or selected medicinal
herbs. Chen and Akre cite research
relevant to some of these conditions, but there is little or no clinical
confirmation for most of the presumed medical benefits. The authors mention that USDA chemists are
currently testing ant powder to determine whether it contains prostaglandin
inhibitors, chemicals that mimic aspirin, and which, if found, might lend some
scientific foundation to the use of ants in treating arthritis and some other
ailments.
According to Chen and Akre, the Chinese
people are enthusiastic about ants used as medicine, and their popularity is
increasing. The medical uses are widely
reported in newspapers and magazines and on television and radio. Scientists are concerned that there is danger
the ants are being over-harvested to the point of extinction, and efforts are
now underway to develop mass-rearing methods.
An ant breeding farm, the first, was established in Yuyao, Zhejiang
province in 1991.
See also Bargagli (1877), Simmonds (1885) and Chen (1990)
in the Introduction.
Scoliidae
(scoliids)
See Chen (1990) in the Introduction.
Vespidae
(wasps, hornets)
Vespa sp., larva,
pupa
Among insects eaten in certain localities, Bodenheimer (1951, p. 277) mentions the larvae of Vespa sp.
Pupae and larvae of wasps and hornets: Fried in oil, also canned; Eaten in many
areas of China; Combs hanging on trees, under eaves, holes in trees, in the
soil (Anon.). See also Bargagli (1877) and Chen (1990) in
the Introduction.
Isoptera
According to the official New China News Agency, as
reported in U.S. newspapers (e.g., San
Francisco Examiner March 15, 1992; newspapers summarized in Food Insects Newsl. 6(1): 5, 1993), Yang
Siqi, director of the Yingtan Termite Research Institute, believes termites can
cure a variety of ills. He developed the theory after orthodox treatments
failed to cure his fever and gastritis. After three months of eating termites,
"a miracle happened," and doctors were amazed at how quickly his
ailments had disappeared, according to the report. Yang has set up three
companies to produce termite-based medicines for the international market.
Rhinotermitidae
Coptotermes
formosanus (author?)
See Chen (1990) in the Introduction.
Termitidae
Macrotermes
barnyi (author?), queens
Termites (Termitidae):
Fried; Southern China; Nests in soil and in wood (Anon.). See also Chen (1990) in
Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa
Silkworm pupae are eaten, mixed with egg yellows and
fried in butter (Verrill 1938, p.
162; vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 274).
Hoffmann mentions
that the pupae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori
Linn., are used extensively as food in the silk districts of Kwangtung Province
in South China. He describes as follows:
In reeling, the cocoons are dropped
into very hot water and the reeling girls have a plentiful supply of freshly
cooked food before them all day long.
They seem to eat off and on all day long since they work rapidly for
long hours at a stretch and the cooked morsels are ever before them. One gets a pleasant odor of food being cooked
as he passes through a reeling laboratory.
I understand that the pupae are also roasted and have seen pupae in the
food stalls which had the appearance of having been roasted. The pupae are offered for sale throughout the
silk district in the south and to some extent in other areas. I am told that there are other ways of
preparation employed in the silk districts in central China. The pupae, along with waste material from the
reeling factories, are used as fish food in pondfish culture. Even more
extensively used as fish food is the waste from silkworm rearing (feces, dead
worms, and mulberry leaves).
Bodenheimer (1951, p. 275) states:
Silkworm cultivation is an important
industry in many provinces, e.g. Shantung, Kiangsu and Chekiang and in some
parts of Szechuan. In these places
country people raise silkworms and make silk themselves. Spring is a busy season in the field. The cocoons of silkworms cropped in the
spring are preserved by baking or by pickling them with common salt. Silk is made at leisure during the summer
rainy season. Consequently large amounts
of silkworm pupae are produced during the season. The pupae either from the baked cocoons or
from the salted cocoons are then dried in the sun and preserved as food for the
rest of the year. Pupae from the baked
cocoons are more delicious and are liked most.
For eating the pupae are first softened in water and then fried either
with chicken eggs in the form of omlette or simply fried with onion and
sauce. It is used as a dish in the
ordinary meal or on occasions when guests are invited. In all three provinces silkworm pupae are
eaten in a similar way. The commonest
species is Bombyx mori L.
Merle (1958) credits a Chinese doctor with the
information that (translation), "in certain remote areas of China
[silkworm] chrysalides, scalded and gathered together at the moment the
cocoon's silk is unwound, are placed in containers where, upon fermenting, they
produce a liquid which serves as a condiment (a little like the Vietnamese
'nuoc-man')."
Hyde (1984, p. 15) noted that stir-fried silkworm
pupae at a Chinese commune added a protein-rich supplement to a predominantly
vegetarian diet, and mentions also that silkworm frass is collected by the
Chinese for fish food and fertilizer.
Pupae of the silkworm, Bombyx
mori Linn.: Cooked with
Chinese chives, or fried in oil; Zhejiang, Jangsu; From silk reeling mills (Anon.).
See also Donovan (1798), Darwin (1800), Williams (1853), Bargagli
(1877), Simmonds (1885), Chen (1990) and Prevost (1993) in the Introduction.
Gelechiidae
Pectinophora
gossypiella Saunders, larva
Overwintering larvae of the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders: Fried in oil; Jiangsu, Shandong; Cotton
storehouses (Anon.).
Hepialidae
(ghost moths and swifts)
Hepialus
armoricanus Oberthur, larva
Hepialus
oblifurcus Chu and Wang, larva
According to Hoffmann,
hepialid caterpillars infected with fungus of the genus Cordyceps are sent from Szechwan Province
to other provinces in China as well as abroad.
About a dozen of the infected caterpillars, each with a long strand of
fungal growth, are tied into neat bundles of uniform size. They are made into a broth, with both the
larvae and the broth being consumed.
They are considered both a delicacy and as tonic food, and are
expensive, only the middle classes and the well-to-do being able to afford
them. Hoffmann states that, "I have
sampled this material myself and found it quite tasty, but since I felt fine
both before and after doing so, I cannot testify as to its efficacy." Hoffmann observed an instance in which
hospitalization was necessary for three individuals who ate a large quantity of
cicada nymphs infected with Cordyceps.
Chinese caterpillar fungus, Cordyceps sinensis:
Cooked with chick; Yunnan, Sichuan, and Tibet; High mountains (Anon.).
In 1993, stunning world record track performances by
Chinese women runners rocked the track world and received considerable press
coverage in the U.S. and elsewhere (summarized in the Food Insects Newslet. 6(3): 3, 1993). The
Chinese coach attributed his
athletes' success to hard work and drinking large portions of an expensive
potion made from the rare dong chong xia
chao worm found on China's western high plateau. Steinkraus and Whitfield (1994) cited a source in the sports world in
saying, "Although recent statements from the Chinese attribute the
athletes' success to their intense training schedules rather than to their
dietary supplements, the possible stress-relieving properties of the
caterpillar fungus continue to intrigue
Western athletes and scientists."
The authors cite a 1992 study (Gao et al, Acta Entomol. Sin. 35: 317-321) that the caterpillar fungus
consists of larvae of Hepialus oblifurcus
Chu and Wang (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) infected with the obligate
entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps sinensis (Berkeley)(Clavicipitales,
Ascomycotina). The authors briefly summarize biology of both hepialid moths and
the fungal genus Cordyceps and the methods of
packaging and preparing the fungus for ingestion.
The fungus has always been expensive, affordable only by
the well-to-do, and remains so today. Steinkraus and Whitfield ordered it from
an American-Chinese apothecary in 1993 at a price of US $18/oz which is very
close to the wholesale price quoted in China (US $700/kg). The pharmacologic
properties of the caterpillar fungus are said to resemble those of ginseng (Panax quinguefolius), strengthening and
rejuvenating a system harmed by overexertion or long illness. Many other
medical benefits are also attributed to the fungus. Although the incredible
performances of the Chinese women's track team cannot yet be attributed to the
fungal potions, the authors conclude that, "Clearly, Cordyceps spp. deserve more [research]
attention from pharmacologists, chemists, and entomologists."
Unfortunately, Cordyceps has its
greatest diversity in rainforests and becomes much less abundant as the
rainforests are disturbed and destroyed. "The loss of these fascinating
insect pathogens will be especially tragic because of their potential as a
source of pharmacologically active compounds."
Espelie (1994) and X. Chen (1990)(see Introduction)
give the identity of the caterpillar as Hepialus armoricanus, which raises
a question as to whether there is taxonomic synonymy involved or whether more
than one species serves as host for the fungus. Cordyceps species appear to be host-specific, according to
Steinkraus and Whitfield, but they note that this may only be apparent because
more than half of the described species are known only from the original
collection.
Noctuidae
(noctuids)
Hydrillodes
morosa (author), larval
excreta
See Chen (1990) in the Introduction.
Pyralidae
(snout and grass moths)
Aglossa
dimidiata (author?), larval excreta
See Chen (1990) in the Introduction.
Saturniidae
(giant silkmoths)
Antheraea (= Antherea) pernyi
(Guérin-Méneville), pupa
Saturnia
(=
Eriogyna) pyretorum (Westw.), larva
Bodenheimer (1951, p. 275) states:
In Shantung, people of certain hilly
districts cultivate Antherea pernyi
on oak trees. On account of the large
size and thick cuticle, the pupae are generally prepared by frying with onion
and sauce, and not with eggs as is done for ordinary silkworm pupae. Since the pupae of this species are rather
rare, but of large size, they are especially valued. Farmers who have these pupae may give them to
their friends or relatives as a special gift.
Peigler (1993) describes a rather bizarre deviation
from the normal exploitation of silk from cocoons. For centuries in southern
China, particularly on the island of Hainan, mature larvae of Saturnia (= Eriogyna) pyretorum (Westwood)(Saturniidae) "were collected
just before pupation and the silk glands were extracted , soaked in vinegar,
washed, stretched more than 2 m, and made into what was hailed as very strong
leaders for fishing lines. The caterpillars were sometimes fried and eaten
after the silk glands were extracted."
Sphingidae
(hawk moths, sphinx moths)
Clanis
bilineata Walker, larva, pupa
Pupae and larvae of Clanis
bilineata Walker (Sphingidae):
Salt-soaked, then fried; Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Anhui, Jiangsu; In
soybean fields and the wood of the Chinese scholartree (Anon.).
See also Darwin (1800) in the Introduction.
Odonata
Bodenheimer (1951: 277-278) mentions that the larvae of
dragonflies are eaten in certain localities.
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Locusta
migratoria Linn.
Locusta
migratoria manilensis Megen
Oxya
chinensis Thunberg
In Tientsin, Oliphant
(1861, p. 273) saw boys in the
street hawking bushels of fried locusts.
Locust hunting is a favorite occupation of the children, and Oliphant
compared the taste of the locusts to that of periwinkles. Cowan
(1865, p. 126) cites the Chinese
Repository to the effect that the Chinese consider the locust, when deprived of
its abdomen and properly cooked, as passable eating, but do not appear to hold
the dish in much esteem.
Bodenheimer (1951, pp. 275-276) states:
The eating of grasshopper is common
in various parts of China. Many species
are eaten and the species concerned depends on what is available. In Shantung at least 4 species are
eaten. The female of the large form is
about 3 inches long. The time these
insects are collected to be used as food is the late autumn. At that time the female insect contains a
large number of eggs and on account of the chilly mornings they are more easily
caught. During this time children as
well as adults usually collect them while working in the fields. The catch forms one of the dishes of the
evening meal. The wings are taken off,
the heads together with the intestine are pulled out and the whole insect is
fried with the addition of salt and sauce.
In Tientsin and Peking even city
people eat grasshoppers. The farmer in
the autumn collects and brings them to the market to be sold alive. The grasshoppers of a market value are only
the locust, Locusta migratoria,
as this is the only species that can be collected in large numbers in some
years. Also regarding this species,
those collected in the late autumn containing eggs are especially
appreciated. This species is so commonly
eaten that during autumn and winter months it can be obtained from any
groceries in both Peking and Tientsin.
Some are already fried ready to be eaten, while dried ones (they are
killed by boiling in water or by steam and dried) can be purchased and fried at
home.
While grasshoppers are ordinarily
used as accessory food, they, especially the locusts, when the crop has been
destroyed by them and the farmers can collect them in large numbers, are used
as ordinary food. Families are known who
passed the famines due to destruction of crop by locusts by eating the locusts
collected in the field with the limited amount of cereal they had on hand. In such cases the collected locusts are
either killed by boiling them in water or by steam, then dried in the sun and
fried for eating when needed.
Locust (Acrididae):
Cooked with salt, then dried under the sun. Mixed with rice to make porridge or cake, or
cooked with vegetable as a dish. Or,
fried in oil after removing the intestine, head and legs; very crisp and tasty;
Eaten in many areas of China and Japan; Found on grasses in uncultivated fields
(Anon.).
Luo (1990) reported that L. migratoria manilensis Megen and O. chinensis Thunberg are widely used as
food in China. The latter has been canned for sale in some town markets in
recent years.
See also Williams (1853), Bargagli
(1877), Bodenheimer (1951) and Chen (1990) in the Introduction and Hoffmann
under Bombycidae.
Blattidae
(cockroaches)
Periplaneta
americana (Linn.)
Periplaneta
australasiae (Fabr.)
Bodenheimer (1951) states that cockroaches (Periplaneta americana and P. australasiae) are eaten in certain
localities, as does Anon.: Cockroach (Blattidae): Cooked; Guangdong; Wardrobes.
Gryllidae
(crickets)
Adult crickets:
Cooked with soysauce and sugar; China, Japan; Small ridged holes in
vegetable fields (Anon.).
Gryllotalpidae
(mole crickets)
Adult mole crickets (Gryllotalpidae): After the legs, wings and intestines are
removed, they are eaten with sauce; Guangdong, Guangxi; In the soil, especially
in gullies and ravines; Collected during spring ploughing, or when attracted to
baits (Anon.).
Insects
as Animal Feed in China
According to Clausen
(1963, pp. 137-138), the small
scale insect, Ericerus pala
(Coccidae), which produces the wax known as "peh-la" in China, forms
a byproduct that is fed to swine. See
also Hoffmann (1947) and Hyde (1984) under Bombycidae.
Luo (1989) summarized the results reported in
numerous research papers published in China since 1980 on the nutritive value
of insects, primarily three species, as feed for poultry, fish, pigs and
farm-grown mink. The three species are Musca
domestica (larvae and pupae), the silk worm, Bombyx mori (pupae), and the yellow meal
worm, Tenebrio molitor (larvae).
Data on proximate analyses, calcium and phosphorus content of the three insects
are presented in China Table 1 and compared to earthworm meal and two conventional high-protein feeds,
fish meal and bean cake (see Luo's Table 1 and his text).
In at least the majority of the feeding trials reported,
experimental diets involved substitution of insect meal for equivalent weights
of fish meal, either all or part of it. There is no mention of whether diets
were kept isonitrogenous and isocaloric within experiments.
In all of eight reports on laying hens, hens fed fly
meal-containing diets fared as well or better than those fed fish meal diets as
measured by egg production, egg quality, and feed costs. In one test on pigs
fed fly larval diet, the pigs showed increased growth and reduced cost per
pound of meat produced. In two reports on first-year grass carp, fish fed fly
meal showed increased weight gains and protein efficiency and reduced cost per
pound of fish produced.
In one report on silkworm pupal meal fed to chicks,
weight gains of chicks fed the pupal meal were slightly lower than those fed fish
meal, but the cost per pound of meat produced was reduced because the price of
pupae is only half that of an equivalent amount of fish meal. In two reports,
silkworm pupae were an excellent protein source for commercially reared mink,
resulting in improved lustre and quality of fur. Silkworm pupae produced
increased weight gains in pigs but also resulted in an odor problem in the
meat. The problem was eliminated by removing pupae from the diet one month
before slaughter. Chemical methods also show progress in eliminating the
offending odor from silkworm pupae.
Miscellaneous
See Hoffmann under Belostomatidae.
JAPAN
Esaki (1942; vide Bodenheimer 1951, pp. 278-279)
mentioned that certain insects are said to be eaten in some localities of
Japan. Remington
(1946) reported
information provided by Professor T. Inukai of the Hokkaido Imperial University
in Sapporo, Nagano Prefecture, which is in north-central Honshu. Nagano is one of the few wholly inland
provinces. The people "are unable
to get enough fish and meat to fill their protein needs, and they extensively
tap the insect population."
According to Remington, "all pupae (other than wasps) taken in the
soil are carefully avoided. Apparently
some are very poisonous. On the other
hand, all insects found in fresh water
are edible and delicious. Larvae and
aquatic adults of Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Ephemerida, Plecoptera, Trichoptera,
Odonata, and others are eaten, unsorted.
Aquatic insects are frequently gathered by nets and screens which are
held in swift water while the stream bottom above them is agitated, stones
moved, and trash stirred." Insects
mentioned by Remington are discussed below under the appropriate orders and
families.
Mitsuhashi (1984), in his book, "Edible Insects of
the World," includes a section on insects as traditional foods in Japan
(DeFoliart [1988] provides a sketchy outline of the contents of the book, which
is in Japanese). Concerning the varieties of insects eaten in Japan, Mitsuhashi
cites data gathered in 1919 by Dr. Tsunegata(?) Miyake of the Agricultural
Experiment Station, Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. This report contains
the results of a survey carried out in each prefecture, and includes not only
edible insects but also medicinal insects. The survey identified 55 varieties
of edible insects and 123 varieties of medicinal insects that were known in
Japan at that time.
In the ranking by prefecture, Nagano Pref.
is found to be at the top, as might be expected. This is probably due to the
fact that Nagano is a mountainous region, where the supply of animal protein
from sources such as fish is not sufficient. In Nagano hachinoko (bee or wasp
larvae) and zazamushi (aquatic insects) are particularly renowned, and these
items are sold packed into cans. These foods are still eaten today, and the
canned items are even exported to foreign countries. The traditions of eating
insects in the other prefectures were substantially the same, without any
particularly unusual items. Only Miyazaki Pref. failed to respond to this
survey; replies from Toyama Pref., Osaka Pref., and Kagawa Pref. indicated that
there was no tradition of eating insects in those areas, but Mitsuhashi wonders
whether this is so. Maybe the respondents, thinking that the idea of eating
insects was somewhat embarrassing, may not have answered truthfully.
Three important insect foods discussed by
Mitsuhashi are inago (see under Acrididae), hachinoko (see under Apidae) and
zazamushi. Zazamushi, rather than being unique to Japan, may properly be called
a food item that is unique to Nagano Prefecture. Zazamushi is not a single
variety of insect, but is a catch-all name applied to the larvae of insects
that live at the bottom of rivers. About 1955 Dr. Y. Torii studied the
zazamushi taken along the Tenryugawa River near Ina in Nagano Pref. and found
the great majority (93%) were larvae of tobikera (Trichoptera). The larvae of
hebitonbo (Protohermes) accounted for 6%, while larvae of kawagera (Plecoptera)
made up 0.2% and larvae of nabebutamushi(?) 0.3%. This species composition is
not constant; kawagera larvae are said to have been the principal component in
the past. In general, insects that live in water are not poisonous and are
delicious. Thus, zazamushi were surely popular as a food item. The name "zazamushi"
means insects (mushi) that live in a place where the river makes the sound
"zaazaa" as it flows. At one time it was possible to catch as much as
several tens of kilograms of zazamushi, but these days only a small quantity
can be taken. Even today, however, it is still possible to enjoy canned
zazamushi.
Ichinose (1989) mentions eating, as a child in the
Nanshin district of Nagano prefecture, various species of insects, and that
many people still consume insects of the following groups: Ephemeroptera, Odonata (Libellulidae),
Orthoptera (Tettigonioidea and Acridioidea), Plecoptera, Hemiptera (Cicadidae),
Neuroptera, Tricoptera, Lepidoptera (silk worm pupae and adults), Coleoptera
(true water beetle and water-scavenger beetle adults, and longicorn beetle
larvae, pupae and adults) and Hymenoptera (all species of Vespa and Polistes). One can buy canned aquatic insects, canned Vespa spp., rice hoppers, and cooked pupae
and adult silk worm in Nanshin supermarkets.
Most insects are cooked before being eaten, but some people eat raw wasp
larvae and pupae.
Ichinose suggests that insects may have been an important
source of salt and minerals in Nanshin, which, because of terrain and climate,
was sometimes hard to reach with deliveries from coastal districts. Until about 100 years ago, when humid weather
reduced salt production, "the people of Nanshin frequently either ate more
insects to increase their salt intake or extracted salt by boiling tatami.
Kiuchi and Tamaki
(1990) note that, at present, only
a few insects are consumed as food in Japan and only four are found on the
market: "inago" (see under
Acrididae), the silkworm (see under Bombycidae), "hachinoko" (see
under Vespidae) and "zazamushi."
Zazamushi is a general term for edible insects living in the gravel of
river fords. Those eaten are mainly the
larvae of may flies (Ephemeroptera) and caddis flies (Trichoptera), but their
production is minimal. According to the
authors, "most people who have eaten insects say that insects are good if
they are properly cooked." They
discuss psychological and cultural barriers and believe that people's
evaluation of insects as food can be changed.
Finally, they state the necessity of developing mass production methods
if we are to realize edible insect production as a modern industry.
Pemberton and Yamasaki (1995) reported
that, in Japan, there is a type of restaurant, traditional but not common, that
specializes in foods of the Japanese Alps.
These restaurants serve many kinds of gathered foods, including
insects. In 1985, the authors visited
one of these restaurants called the Sinshu-Sakagura, located in the Sinjuku
district of Tokyo. The menu included:
1) hachi-no-ko, boiled wasp larvae (Vespula lewisi Cameron), 500 Yen (US
$3.15);
2) zaza-mushi, larvae of aquatic insects,
mainly Trichoptera (Stenopsyche griseipennis MacLachan in this case)
boiled in soy sauce, 350 Yen ($2.20);
3) inago, fried rice-field grasshoppers (Oxya japonica japonica Willemse) slightly
seasoned with soy, 300 Yen ($1.90);
4) semi, a fried cicada (Graptopsaltria nigrofasciata Motschulsky).
They were also served sangi, fried pupae of the silk moth (Bombyx mori L.) which did not appear on
the menu.
In 1992, the authors looked again for insect foods and
found the Kisoji in Ikebukuro, part of the Jamasa chain of Japanese Alps style
restaurants which at that time had eleven branches in Tokyo. Three of the same kinds of insects they had
tried in 1985 were on the menu: wasp larvae and pupae, rice-field grasshoppers
and caddicefly (Trichoptera) larvae. The
restaurant manager told them that most customers order insect dishes.
The authors found canned insects sold in the large food
centers usually found on the basement levels of department stores and also in
small stores. These included silk moth
pupae, honeybee larvae, rice-field grasshoppers, and "child hornets." The latter were being sold for about $20 per
100 g can in the prestigious Mitsukoshi Department Store in Tokyo in 1990. Some people enjoy catching rice-field
grasshoppers while on picnics or holidays, and some mountain inns and hotels
will prepare the grasshoppers that their guests catch.
The textures of the insects were more pronounced than
their flavors, probably because they were not fresh (even the restaurant
insects seemed to be from cans) and because of the use of soy sauce and sugar
in the preparations.
All of the insects except the silk moth pupae, which are
a by-product of the silk industry, are wild-caught. Rice-field grasshoppers were traditionally
caught by hand by farmers' wives, but today, some are caught by net-bearing
motor scooter riders. The Trichoptera
are captured by placing large nets across mountain streams, then disturbing
rocks upstream to dislodge them. The
large underground nests of Vespula lewisi are
found by catching a wasp, tying a long silk thread to it, then following it
back to its nest. Sometimes, a small
piece of paper is tied to the thread to slow the flight of the wasp and make it
even more visible. The nest is dug up
after driving the adult wasps from it with smoke.
There are several reasons for the appeal of edible
insects in modern Japan: simple
enjoyment of the tastes, or the novelty, or the nostalgia of the old foods,
even in Tokyo "amongst the glass and steel towers and the fast food
restaurants." Foraging for wild
foods like grasshoppers and edible plants is a popular pastime for some hikers,
and wasp larvae and pupae are consumed by some to promote good health and a
long life. Among several factors
mentioned by the authors, in historical times the traditional Japanese Buddhist
prohibition against eating four-legged beasts probably helped maintain insect
usage.
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae
(long-horned beetles)
Larvae and pupae of Cerambycidae and certain other
wood-boring beetles are dug out of dead wood and are valued as food (Remington 1946). See also Ichinose (1989) in the Introduction.
Dytiscidae
(predaceous diving beetles)
Cybister
japonicus Sharp, adult
Dytiscus
spp., adults
Dytiscus adults are
among the aquatic insects commonly eaten (Remington
1946). The large dytiscid
beetle, Cybister japonicus, is
eaten (Bodenheimer 1951, p.
278). See also Ichinose (1989) in the
Introduction.
Elateridae
(click beetles)
Larvae and pupae of Elateridae are dug out of dead wood and
valued as food (Remington 1946).
Hydrophilidae
(water scavenger beetles)
See Ichinose (1989) in the Introduction.
Ephemeroptera
Nymphs of Ephemeroptera are eaten, boiled (Esaki 1942). Also see Remington (1946), Ichinose (1989),
and Kiuchi and Tamaki (1990) in the Introduction.
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
(giant water bugs)
See Remington (1946) in the Introduction.
Homoptera
Cicadidae
(cicadas)
Graptopsaltria nigrofasciata Motschulsky, adult
Among the very popular insects eaten are all species of
Cicadidae (adults) (Remington 1946). See also Ichinose (1989) and Pemberton and
Yamasaki (1995) in the Introduction.
Hymenoptera
Apidae
(honey bees)
Apis
mellifera Linn., drone pupa
Takaishi (1908) reported that, in Shinano Province,
the larvae and young bees of a species of wild bee (Japanese name, jibachi or
anabachi) that nests in holes in the ground are used as food. The high price indicates that they are
considered a delicacy. The dish is
prepared with sugar and shoyu-sauce, and similarly prepared bees and larvae are
canned in tin containers and exported to other provinces in Japan, about 1,000
cans annually. One kilo costs yen
2.50. The insects are dug up after first
igniting gun-powder at the nest entrance to stupify them; they are killed by
placing them briefly in hot water.
Analysis of the canned preparation revealed water 28.15%, crude protein
13.69%, crude fat 11.15%, glucose 5.71%, cane sugar 5.81%, NaCl 6.23%, ash
10.92%.
In an article in the Saturday Evening Post, "My
Adventures in Eating," Joseph Alsop says of fried bees [brood?] served in
a Tokyo restaurant (Anon. 1957): "I really rather enjoyed the bees, which
are a pleasant dish. The country
children make a game of finding the wild hives, imitating the bee birds; their
families pick the young bees from the combs, fry them and put them down in
crocks..."
According to Mitsuhashi
(1984) hachinoko (bee or wasp
larvae) is the most widely eaten insect food in Japan next to inago. Eating hachinoko is not a custom confined
merely to Japan. All over the world
different varieties of bees or wasps are eaten, but in Japan it is mainly the
jibachi(?) and kurosuzumebachi(?) that are eaten. In general, hachinoko are either eaten raw,
boiled down in soy sauce, or served over boiled rice. In Nagano Pref. a mixture of larvae, pupae,
and adults is boiled down in soy sauce, canned and sold.
[NAME 1990]
discussed bees and bee larvae as traditional food in Japan [this needs better
translation].
See also Mitsuhashi (1988), Kantha (1988), Kiuchi and
Tamaki (1990) under Vespidae.
Vespidae
(wasps, hornets)
Polistes
spp.,
pupa
Vespa
japonica Saussure, larva
Vespa spp., larva
Vespula
lewisi (Cameron), larva, pupa, adult
Vespula
sp.,
larva, pupa
Okamura (1912) discussed wasp brood as food [this
awaits translation]. According to Esaki (1942),
the so-called "bee-larvae" sold on the market are actually wasp
grubs, Vespa sp., which fits with
information that honeybees were rarely kept in Japan.
Remington
states: "The favorite insect for
food in Nagano is the Yellow-jacket Wasp (subg. Vespula), whose larvae and pupae are highly prized. Pupae of all wasps are eaten when found, but Polistes seems to rank next to Vespula in frequency of occurrence on
Japanese menus. In Sapporo the writer
saw Vespula pupae preserved in
cans and apparently sold in grocery stores." Bodenheimer
(1951, p. 278) reports that larvae of Vespa japonica are prepared as canned
goods in Japan and have a large annual sales volume.
In the fourth edition of the Standard Tables of Food
Composition in Japan (Anon. 1982;
vide Kantha 1988), the protein content of canned larvae of Vespa japonica Saussure is given as 15.7
grams per 100 grams of edible portion.
Mitsuhashi (1988) mentions that Emperor Hirohito,
following surgery in 1987, reportedly "finished all of the wasp-rice dish
even when he had no appetite and left most of the other dishes." Mitsuhashi describes the dish as follows:
The wasp-rice is a mixture of cooked
rice and canned wasps. The canned wasp
is a specialty of Nagano Prefecture. It
is a cooked wasp (a mixture of larvae, pupae, and adults of Vespula lewisi; sometimes male larvae of
bees, Apis mellifera, are used)
with soy sauce and sugar. In my
experience, the wasp-rice tasted good.
It was somewhat sweet and nutty.
The shortcoming is that the shapes of dark adults with wing, pupae, and
white maggots are well preserved. If one
doesn't care about the appearance, it is really good.
Mitsuhashi describes how
the wasps are collected, and states, without citing a source, that they are a
protein-rich food which contains 10 times as much B-group vitamins and iron as
ordinary food. A can of the cooked wasps
(about 65 g) presently sells for yen 1,000 (about U.S. $8.00).
Kantha (1988) mentions that wasp larvae (hachinoko) are eaten in Japan. Kiuchi and
Tamaki (1990) note that
"hachinoko" consists of the larvae of small wasps of the genus Vespula which make large nests in the
ground. The larvae taste very good and
are expensive. Production has been
decreasing in recent years, and honey bee larvae are often used as substitutes.
See Pemberton and Yamasaki (1995) in Introduction.
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera pupae not found in the soil are said to be
very tasty (Remington 1946).
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa, adult
Silkworm pupae and adults are eaten, boiled (Esaki 1942). The pupa of the silkworm (Bombyx mori) is eaten, not only in Nagano
Prefecture, but throughout Japan (Remington
1946). "When the silk is
reeled from the cocoons the edible and nourishing pupae remain, and are not
discarded." They are fried in fat
and salted. Remington mentions that, as
a dinner guest at Hokkaido Imperial University, he was served Bombyx pupae prepared in this manner. He found the pupae "very
delicious," and he determined to investigate the taste of several North
American Saturniidae, such as Platysamia
cecropia, Actius luna
and Telea polyphemus.
Kiuchi and Tamaki (1990) note that silkworm pupae are used as
food after the silk is taken from the cocoons, and that in some cases adult
silkmoths are also eaten. "Three pupae of the silkworm are said to have
nutrition equal to an egg." The pupae are also fed to fish and chickens in
Japan and India.
See also Ichinose (1989) and Pemberton and Yamasaki
(1995) in the Introduction.
Cossidae
(carpenter moths, leopard moths)
Remington states that
larvae of Cossidae (wood-boring moths) are dug out of dead wood and are valued
as food.
Limacodidae
(slug caterpillars)
Common and easily gathered is the pupa of the Hag moth (Eucleidae),
a pest insect whose larvae bear stinging hairs (Remington 1946).
Mantodea
All praying mantes (Mantodea) are eaten (Remington 1946).
Odonata
Dragonfly nymphs.
See Remington (1946) and Ichinose (1989) in the Introduction. Mitsuhashi
(1984) reported the use of
dragonflies as food, and Pemberton
(1995) described a traditional
Japanese dragonfly catching technique.
Orthoptera
Acrididae
(short-horned grasshoppers)
Oxya
japonica japonica Willemse, adult
Oxya
velox Fabr.
Oxya
yezoensis Shiracki
Grasshoppers are eaten, boiled (Esaki 1942). Popular insects include Oxya velox (called 'Inago' in Nagano
Prefecture) and practically all other grasshoppers (Remington 1946). They
are killed in a hot pan and preferably cooked by frying. The protein content of tsukudani from Oxya yezoensis Shiraki was reported as 22.5 grams per 100
grams of edible portion (Anon. 1982).
Considering the variety of insects in the 1919 survey
(see Introduction), the insects most widely eaten were undeniably the batta
(locusts, grasshoppers) (Mitsuhashi 1984).
Typical among these is the inago (Oxya velox),
so much so that there was hardly a region where inago were not eaten. The inago, which at one time would have been
served at the dinner table as a source of animal protein, virtually disappeared
as a result of the postwar use of DDT and BHC, and it became difficult to
collect enough inago to comprise a meal.
However, recently, since strong regulations were enacted regarding the
use of insecticides, the number of inago has been increasing slowly, so that
inago have now begun to reappear on dinner tables. When late autumn arrives, inago preserved by
boiling them down in soy sauce begin to appear in supermarkets, even in Tokyo,
and are sold in train stations. At one
time inago occupied an important position as a source of animal protein, but
these days they are sold as a luxury item.
Alternatively, several inago may be served neatly in a small dish as a
snack in a country style bar. There are
many inago lovers, and there were times when the number of inago had decreased
so seriously as a result of the use of insecticides that the owners of
restaurants specializing in cooking peculiar to certain localities searched
frantically to find inago.
Catching
inago is an activity that adds poetic charm to rice paddies in autumn. This event was practically abandoned at one
time, but the recovery of the inago population has meant that inago may now be
caught even on the outskirts of large cities.
A letter in a newspaper in the autumn of 1981 recounted that the
research laboratory where the writer worked had held an inago hunt at an
elementary school in Tsukuba Science City in Ibaraki Pref. The fathers and mothers who participated in the
hunt collected 68 kilograms of inago in 2 hours. Mitsuhashi states that this is an age when we
face a problem of overproduction of rice.
Rather than harvesting this excess rice, why not let inago feed on the
rice so that their population will increase, thereby increasing the yield of
animal protein?
Kantha (1988) mentions that: "In autumn in the agricultural villages,
rice hoppers (inago) are
collected from the farms and after removal of wings and limbs are cooked with
soy sauce and sugar, and served....Processed rice hoppers (mainly from Nagano
prefecture) called tsukudani are
sold in packets in supermarkets and are mainly eaten as a snack with alcoholic
beverages." Kantha notes a two-fold
benefit, use of a good source of animal protein (in itself notable in a country
which, until a century ago, detested killing land mammals), and removal of an
agricultural pest.
"Inago," a grasshopper that eats rice plants,
is the most popular edible insect in Japan (Kiuchi
and Tamaki 1990). The insects
are mainly caught in paddy fields after harvest by old people and children who
want to earn a little money on their own.
Some insects on the market are said, however, to be imported from
abroad. According to the authors, "the
nutrition of 'inago' is known to be equivalent to that of beef with a low fat
content."
See also Ichinose (1989) and Pemberton and Yamasaki
(1995) in the Introduction. For the
results of biochemical studies on Oxya velox,
see Ichikawa (1936 a,b, 1938) in the References Cited.
Gryllidae
(crickets)
All crickets are eaten (Remington
1946). They are killed in a
hot pan and preferably cooked by frying.
Superfamily
Tettigonioidea (long-horned grasshoppers, etc.)
See Ichinose (1989) in the Introduction.
Plecoptera
Stoneflies. See
Mitsuhashi (1984) and Ichinose (1989) in the Introduction.
Trichoptera
Family
uncertain
Stenopsyche
griseipennis MacLachan, larva
Nymphs of Trichoptera (caddiceflies) are eaten, boiled (Esaki 1942). See also Mitsuhashi, Ichinose, Kiuchi and
Tamaki, and Pemberton and Yamasaki in the Introduction.
KOREA
There appear to be few published records of
insect consumption in Korea.
Lepidoptera
Bombycidae
(silkworm moths)
Bombyx
mori (Linn.), pupa
Silk moth pupae (Bombyx
mori), a by-product of the Korean silk industry, are almost always
present in the Seoul markets (Pemberton 1994).
Canned silkworm pupae, presumably Bombyx mori, with labeling entirely in
Korean and imported from Korea, have been found for sale since 1988 in an Asian
foodshop in Madison, Wisconsin.
According to the shopkeeper, they are a favorite of the Korean community
in Madison (and, presumably, elsewhere in the United States.)
Orthoptera
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers)
Acrida
lata Motschulsky, adult
Oxya
sinuosa Mistshenko, adult
Oxya
velox (Fabr.), adult
According to Pemberton
(l994), rice-field grasshoppers,
primarily Oxya velox (Fabr.),
called metdugi, were formerly a
common food ingredient in Korea, but their use as food declined as insecticide
use increased during the 1960s and 1970s. Metdugi
ceased being found in the Seoul markets whereas silkworm pupae (Bombyx mori L.) are almost always present.
In Chahwang Myun (a district in Sanchung County) insecticide spraying began to
decline in 1981, allowing metdugi populations
to begin increasing. In 1982 some metdugi began
to be collected and sold again in the local market at Sanchon.
Pemberton states: "The decline in insecticide use
and the desire of some Koreans to eat pesticide-free rice led to the
development of organic rice farming in Chahwang Myun. This was economically
viable because the yields of rice were the same in unsprayed fields as in
sprayed fields, and organic rice sold (and still sells) for higher
prices." In 1989, the Chahwang Agricultural Cooperative began buying dried
metdugi from farmer-collectors.
In 1990, more than 600 families sold 1744 liters of metdugi to the Cooperative at 5000 Won per liter (US $6.98).
The Cooperative sold them for 6500 Won per liter (US $9.08); much of the 1990
sale went to a supermarket company in Pusan which divided the metdugi into 0.2 liter packages and sold
these for 3000 Won (US $4.19). By 1992, the Cooperative was paying US $9.91 per
liter for metdugi and selling it
at bulk rate for US $12.03 per liter. In addition to selling to the
Cooperative, farmers sell metdugi at
the local five-day markets (open one day every five days) and on the street.
Metdugi are
most commonly collected by older women, and usually from mid-October to early
November. The collected metdugi are
steamed or boiled, then dried in the sun for one day and in a room for two more
days. For two women studied by Pemberton, the average collection rate was about
0.25 liter per hour, with a best rate of 1.0 liter per hour. During 1990, the
income per hour for these women for collecting metdugi
ranged from US $1.75-6.98, excluding the time spent in processing
and marketing.
As to food preparation of dried metdugi, they are sometimes eaten dried
without seasoning, but they are usually pan-fried with or without oil after the
wings and legs have been removed. The author describes further preparation as
follows: "During or after cooking, they are flavored with sesame oil and
salt, or sesame oil and sugar, or soy sauce with or without sugar. I have also
seen live ones fried whole. These turn red like shrimp as they cook. Many of
these preparations produce a product with good snack food essence. They are
bite-sized, crispy, crunchy, and salty and/or slightly sweet. . . ."
According to Pemberton, many Koreans consider metdugi
to be a health food, and, for older Koreans, it brings nostalgia - a
taste of the past.
A one liter package of metdugi
purchased from the Cooperative was found to consist of three
species, Oxya velox (84.5%), Oxya sinuosa Mistshenko (14.8%) and a
single Acrida lata Motschulsky, a
large species not expected to be found in metdugi
although it is one of the species eaten in Korea.
MACAU
Coleoptera
Beetles of the aquatic families Dytiscidae and
Hydrophilidae are commonly eaten in Macau (E.R. Easton, University of Macau,
pers. comm. 1993). These beetles are commonly eaten wherever Cantonese dwell
and Canton is only a short distance from Macau.
TAIWAN
Coleoptera
Dytiscidae
(predaceous diving beetles)
Dytiscid beetles are said to be eaten in Taiwan (Esaki 1942;
vide Bodenheimer 1951, p. 279).
Odonata
Dragonflies were roasted and eaten in Taiwan at least as
recently as the 1950s (Pemberton, 1995).
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Cited (An * denotes reference not seen)
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(Japan: Apidae)
Anonymous. 1982. Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan,
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Anonymous. Date? Title?
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Bargagli,
P. 1877. Insetti Comestibili
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F.S. 1951.
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Brygoo,
E. 1946. Essai de
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F. 1865. Curious Facts in the
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Darwin,
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T. 1942. Notes on
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Ghesquièré,
J. 1947. Les insectes
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As the first step in biochemical studies
on the locust, Oxya velox, a
general analysis and an analysis of inorganic components were carried out with
the following results: 1. The average weight of a living locust was 0.92 g for
a male and 1.33 g for a female. 2. On a water-free basis the body of a locust
consisted largely of protein (75%) with 6% fat, 4% carbohydrate and 6% ash. 3.
Alkaline phosphates accounted for the greatest portion of the inorganic
components of the body of a locust. Phosphoric acid accounted for 32%, potash
25%, soda 20% and silicic acid 13%. 4. The major difference between the
inorganic components in the body of a locust, compared to those of other crops,
lies in the large quantities of heavy metals such as copper, iron, and
manganese present in the locust. 5. In summary, locusts are higher in protein
content than the yeast that is currently sold. Further, the high content of
copper, iron, manganese and other heavy metals means that locusts should be
utilized as a food item, and should be further researched. 6. The presence of
copper in the body of a locust is thought to be significant for the locust as
an organism.
Ichikawa,
C. 1936b. Biochemical studies on the locust (Part
2)[In Japanese]. Jour. Agric. Chem. Soc.
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This paper contains the results from
chemical analyses of locusts collected from rice paddies in xxxx Village in
Gifu Pref. in July, August and September. The purpose of the research was to
determine the changes in the chemical components of locusts during growth. The
results of chemical analyses of locusts collected on July 20, August 25 and
September 30, 1935 are shown in the author's Tables 1-4. Based on the data in
his Table 4 regarding the changes in inorganic components, the content of Fe2O3
was highest in mid- or late August. The
content at this time was approximately twice the content in late
September. The content of CaO was
highest in mid- July. The content at
this time was approximately twice the content in mid- or late August. The content of MgO was highest in mid-July.
The MgO content decreased as the locusts grew, and by late September had fallen
to a value approximately half of the value in mid-July. Both the K2O
content and the Na2O content were highest in mid- or late August. By
late September both had fallen to values lower than the respective values in
mid-July. The content of P2O5 was lowest in mid- or late
August, with the content in late September higher than the content in mid-July.
The content of SO3 was highest in mid- or late August; no
significant difference was observed between the value in mid-July and the value
in late September. The highest values were observed for MnO, TiO2,
and CuO in mid- or late August. No significant differences were observed
between the values in mid-July and those in late September.
In summary, mid- or late August appears
to be the best time to collect locusts to take advantage of their value as
food. This is also the time when locusts do the most damage to rice plants.
Thus, collection of locusts in mid-August seems to be the best strategy.
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to have a higher content of water soluble nitrogen, globulin-type nitrogen,
glutelin-type nitrogen and chitin-type nitrogen. The female was higher in
albumin-type nitrogen and prolamin-type nitrogen. Alcohol soluble protein, i.e.
prolamin-type nitrogen, was detected in the body of the locust.
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Pp.
2, 11. To what family of Coleoptera do the genera Melanaster and Psacothea belong?
Pp.
5, 29. To what family of Trichoptera does the genus Stenopsyche belong?
Pp.
7, 31. Anonymous (date?, title?). This publication has been misplaced except
for one translated page, page 186 with a "Table 4. Lists of Common Food
Insects in World." Based on this one page, the work is cited several times
in the China text. I would like to hear from anyone who, from the above
information, knows the identity of the work.
Pp.
26, 34. Name 1990. The author's name is lacking.
P.
26. Okamura, 1912 (under Vespidae), needs translation.
P.
35. Shen et al, 1997, where published?